X-Ray Optics and X-Ray Microanalysis (eBook)

Front Cover 1
X-Ray Optics and X-Ray Microanalysis 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 14
List of Contributors 8
Preface 12
Chapter 1. Methods of X-Ray Microscopy 20
Reflection X-Ray Microscopy 21
Contact Microradiography 22
Point Projection Microscopy 24
X-Ray Scanning Microscopy 26
REFERENCES 29
Chapter 2. X-Ray Absorption Microanalysis 32
Total Dry-Weight Determinations 33
Elementary Analysis 38
Conclusion 40
REFERENCES 41
Chapter 3. X-Ray Microanalysis in Biology and Medicine 42
Elementary Analysis by X-Ray Absorption 43
The Determination of Mass and Water in Biological Tissues 46
X-Ray Microfluorescence Analysis 47
X-Ray Microdiffraction Procedures 48
Conclusion 50
Chapter 4. Electron Microscopic Enlargements of X-Ray Absorption Micrographs 52
Introduction 52
Electron Scattering contra Specimen Thickness 54
Experimental Correlation between Electron Contrast and X-Ray Specimen 57
Recorders for Soft X Rays 58
Exploratory X-Ray Recording 62
Summary 69
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 69
REFERENCES 69
Chapter 5. Automation in Microradiography 72
REFERENCES 81
Chapter 6. Contrast-Controlled Reproduction and Enlargement of Microradiographic Negatives 82
REFERENCES 90
Chapter 7. Production of Fresnel Zone Plates for Extreme Ultraviolet and Soft X Radiation 92
Demagnification of Commercial Zone Plates 94
First Applications 96
REFERENCES 98
Chapter 8. Recent Developments in Field Emission Flash Radiography 100
REFERENCES 112
Chapter 9. Quantitative Microradiographic Studies of Human Epidermis 114
REFERENCES 117
Chapter 10. Irradiation Effect on Total Organic Nerve-Cell Material Determined by Integrating X-Ray Absorption 118
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 125
REFERENCES 125
Chapter 11. Histochemical X-Ray Absorption Measurement of Lipid in the Adrenal Gland of the Rat 126
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 127
REFERENCES 127
Chapter 12. X-Ray Microscopy of the Microvascular System of the Human Lung 128
Apparatus 129
Method 129
Results 130
Conclusions 139
Summary 140
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 140
REFERENCES 140
Chapter 13. Microangiography in Living Human Subject 142
REFERENCES 145
Chapter 14. Some Mineralogical and Technical Applications of Contact Microradiography with Fluorescent X Rays 146
REFERENCES 151
Chapter 15. Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering on an Absolute Scale 152
Introduction 152
General Principles 152
Experimental Problems and Apparatus 154
Theory 157
Examples 163
Discussion and Conclusion 173
REFERENCES 175
Chapter 16. Production, Detection, and Application of Ultrasoft X Rays 176
Introduction and Summary of Applications 176
The Production of Ultrasoft X Rays 179
Detection and Measurement of Ultrasoft X Rays 181
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 190
Chapter 17. The Spectral Distribution of the Radiation from a Microfocus X-Ray Tube with a Membrane Target 192
Abstract 192
Einleitung 192
Messapparatur 193
Vergleich des Photonenspektrums für Massiv-und Membranantikathode 193
Anteil der charakteristischen Strahlung an der Gesamtstrahlung einer Membranantikathode 196
Monochromasie der Ni-gefilterten Strahlung einer Cu-Membranantikathode 200
LITERATUR 201
Chapter 18. The Efficiency of Production of Characteristic X Radiation 204
Introduction 204
Experimental Work 204
Theoretical Efficiency Values 205
The Experimental Results 206
Conclusions 210
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 211
REFERENCES 211
Chapter 19. An Efficient Spectrograph for the Study of X-Ray Spectra in the Range of 0.7 A 212
REFERENCES 216
Chapter 20. Optical Techniques Applied to the Study of X-Ray Wavelengths 218
Introduction 218
Total Reflection 219
Diffraction Gratings 220
Study of Grating Surface and Profile 221
X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Gratings 222
Experimental Results 224
Summary 231
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 232
REFERENCES 232
Chapter 21. Effects of Polishing Imperfections on Specular Reflection of X Rays 234
Introduction 234
Theory of Scattering from a Rough Surface 235
Discussion of Experiments 240
Conclusion 245
REFERENCES 247
Chapter 22. Reflectance Measurements at Carbon-K and Beryllium-K Wavelengths 248
Introduction 248
Fresnel Equations 248
Description of the 44.6 A Apparatus 249
Reflection Curves Obtained at 44.6 A 252
Description of the Apparatus Used at 114 A 255
Reflection Curves Obtained at 114 A 256
REFERENCES 258
Chapter 23. Substratum Influence on the Reflectance of Aluminum Vacuum-Deposited Films for X Rays 260
Abstract 260
Einleitung 260
Das Interferenzdiagramm 261
Die Phasensprünge an den Grenzschichten 263
Das Reflexionsvermögen der Glasunterlage 264
LITERATUR 265
Chapter 24. Grazing-lncidence Telescopic Systems 266
Axially Symmetric Paraboloids 270
Aplanatic Soft X-Ray Telescopes 271
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 273
REFERENCES 273
Chapter 25. X-Ray Microdiffraction in X-Ray Scanning Microanalysis 274
REFERENCES 281
Chapter 26. X-Ray Microprobe Techniques 282
The Resolving Power 290
Transmission Analysis 291
Scanning Microanalysis 293
REFERENCES 296
Chapter 27. The Application of the Electron-Probe Microanalyzer to Metallurgy and Mineralogy 298
Specimen Preparation 299
Identification of Inclusions and New Mineral Phases 299
Segregation in Metals 301
Diffusion Couples and Phase Equilibria 303
Petrological Studies 306
Visible Fluorescence in Minerals 307
Meteorites 309
Kossel Line Techniques 311
Conclusion 312
REFERENCES 313
Chapter 28. Review of Microanalysis in Japan 316
Introduction 316
Instrumentation 317
Applied Research 327
MEMBERS OF THE GROUP 333
REFERENCES 334
Chapter 29. Electron-Probe Measurements near Phase Boundaries 336
Excitation by Characteristic Radiation 337
Excitation by Continuous Radiation 339
Absorption of Fluorescence Radiation 339
Artificial Boundaries 341
Exsolution Lamellae 342
Fluorescence Uncertainty 345
Electron Diffusion 345
REFERENCES 346
Chapter 30. Calculation of Fluorescence Excited by Characteristic Radiation in the X-Ray Microanalyzer 348
Introduction 348
Basic Problem 349
The Distribution Function f (.z) 350
Ratio of Absolute Intensities of Primary Radiation From Two Different Elements 352
Comparison of Final Equations 352
Properties of Castaing's Expression with Variations of Incident Angle of Electron Probe, Emergent Angle of X-Ray Beam, Accelerating Voltage, and Atomic Number 355
Conclusion 358
REFERENCES 359
Chapter 31. A Suggested Secondary Fluorescence Correction Technique for Electron-Probe Analyses in the Vicinity of a Steep Concentration Gradient 360
Introduction 360
Experimental Apparatus and Technique 361
Initial Experiments 362
Electron Excitation Away from the Focused Beam 363
Spectrometer Characteristics 366
Fluorescence Experiments 370
Correction Technique and Results 374
Conclusions 378
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 378
REFERENCES 379
Chapter 32. The Target Absorption Correction in X-Ray Microanalysis 380
Introduction 380
The Experimental Method 389
Target Absorption for Direct Production 390
The Target Absorption Correction in X-Ray Microanalysis 394
REFERENCES 395
Chapter 33. A Method for Calculating the Absorption Correction in Electron-Probe Microanalysis 398
Introduction 398
Relationship of Emitted Intensity to Concentration 399
Derivation of the Function f (pz) 400
Derivation of the Function F(.) 403
Discussion 408
Conclusion 411
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 411
REFERENCES 411
Chapter 34. The Effect of Atomic Number in X-Ray Microanalysis 412
Introduction 412
The Essentials of the Problem 413
Calculation of Electron Penetration 414
Backscattering of Electrons 417
Computed Results 423
Comparison of Theory and Experiment 425
Plutonium-Iron 426
Calculation of X-Ray Absorption 427
Conclusion 428
REFERENCES 429
Chapter 35. Atomic Number Effects in Microprobe Analysis 430
Experimental Results 431
Analysis by Au La Radiation 432
Analysis by Au Ma Radiation 435
Analysis by Cu Ka Radiation 435
Conclusion 435
REFERENCES 436
Chapter 36. Scattering of Electrons from a Microanalyzer Target 438
Introduction 438
Theoretical Treatmetnt 439
Experimental Procedure 441
Results and Discussion 444
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 448
REFERENCES 448
Chapter 37. X-Ray Microanalysis of Elements in the Range Z=4–92, Combined with Electron Microscopy and Electron Diffraction 450
Introduction 450
Design of a Combined Instrument 451
The Analysis of Elements Down to Atomic Number 4 455
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 458
REFERENCES 458
Chapter 38. An Experimental Electron Optical Bench for Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis 460
REFERENCE 463
Chapter 39. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis with a Focused Primary Beam 464
Introduction 464
Utilisation d'une raie intense 465
Méthode d'excitation différentielle 466
Conclusion 468
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 468
Chapter 40. The Use of Specimen Current in Electron-Probe Microanalysis 470
Introduction 470
Mesure des coefficients de rétrodiffusion 472
Images électroniques 486
Conclusion 495
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 495
Chapter 41. On a New Electron-Probe X-Ray Microanalyzer having a 90° Take-Off Angle 496
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 500
REFERENCES 500
Chapter 42. An X-Ray Microanalyzer for Elements of Low Atomic Number 502
Introduction 502
The Network Pulse-Analysis Method 502
Apparatus 505
Results 507
Conclusion 512
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 512
REFERENCES 512
Chapter 43. A Consideration of Some Design Features of a Scanning Microanalyzer for Biological Applications 514
REFERENCES 516
Chapter 44. Problems Associated with the Preparation of Biological Specimens for Microanalysis 518
Soft Tissues 518
Hard Tissues 519
Conducting Surface Layer 524
REFERENCES 525
Chapter 45. Some Biological Applications of the Scanning Microanalyzer 526
Introduction 526
Examples of Applications 526
Conclusion 530
REFERENCES 530
Chapter 46. X-Ray Fluorescence Microanalysis and the Determination of Potassium in Nerve Cells 532
Sensitivity and Comparison of Crystal Spectrometer and Proportional Counter Systems 533
Experimental 535
Discussion 538
Summary 539
REFERENCES 540
Chapter 47. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Biology and Medicine 542
Introduction 542
Results and Discussion 544
REFERENCES 555
Chapter 48. Electron-Probe Microanalysis of Biological Specimens 558
Introduction 558
Materials and Methods 559
Observations and Discussion 564
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 575
REFERENCES 575
Chapter 49. Analysis of Heavy Elements (Z> 80) with the Castaing Microprobe: Application to the Analysis of Binary Systems Containing Uranium
Introduction 578
Calculs de Correction 579
Résultats Expérimentaux 589
Conclusions 594
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 594
Chapter 50. A Study of Microsegregation at Grain Boundaries in Mild Steel by Means of the Electron–Probe Microanalyzer 596
Introduction 596
Statement of the Problem 596
Qualitative Experiments 599
Quantitative Analysis 600
Diffusion-Rate Experiments 603
High-Temperature Experiments 603
Summary and Conclusions 607
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 608
REFERENCES 608
Chapter 51. The Use of the Electron-Microprobe Analyzer in the Study of Binary Metal Alloy Systems 610
Introduction 610
Experimental Techniques 611
Results 613
REFERENCES 621
Chapter 52. Sensitivity of X-Ray Spectrochemical Analysis of Steels by Electron Excitation 622
Introduction 622
Experimental 623
Results 625
Discussion 628
REFERENCES 629
Chapter 53. Electron-Probe Analysis of Minerals in the System FeS2-CoS2-NiS2 630
Introduction 630
Experimental Procedure 630
Results 631
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 635
REFERENCES 635
Subject Index 638