Optics (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Optics 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 8
Preface to ninth edition 6
Preface to first edition 7
Chapter 1. The propagation of light 10
1.1 INTRODUCTORY 10
1.2 RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT 11
1.3 PENCILS AND BEAMS 13
1.4 VERGENCE 15
1.5 THE PINHOLE CAMERA 15
1.6 SHADOWS AND ECLIPSES 16
1.7 THE NATURE OF WHITE LIGHT 18
Chapter 2. The behaviour of light on reaching a new medium 21
2.1 INTRODUCTION 21
2.2 REFLECTION—SPECULAR AND DIFFUSE 21
23 THE LAW OF REFLECTION 22
2.4 ABSORPTION AND TRANSMISSION 24
2.5 REFRACTIVE INDEX 25
2.6 REFRACTION 26
2.7 THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST TIME 28
2.8 OPTICAL LENGTH 30
2.9 THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS 31
3 Reflection at a plane surface 33
3.1 IMAGES—VIRTUAL AND REAL 33
3.2 POSITION OF IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR 33
3.3 THE FIELD OF VIEW OF A PLANE MIRROR 35
3.4 DEVIATION PRODUCED BY A MIRROR 36
3.5 REFLECTION FROM A ROTATING MIRROR 36
3.6 DEVIATION ON REFLECTION AT TWO MIRRORS IN SUCCESSION 37
3.7 MULTIPLE IMAGES FORMED ON REFLECTION AT TWO MIRRORS 38
3.8 TWO PARALLEL PLANE MIRRORS 39
3.9 REFLECTION AS A MEANS OF ERECTING AN INVERTED IMAGE 40
3.10 THE SEXTANT 41
Chapter 4. Refraction and internal reflection at a plane surface—prisms and optical fibres 45
4.1 REFRACTION BY A PLANE PARALLEL PLATE 45
4.2 REFRACTION BY A SERIES OF PARALLEL PLATES 46
4.3 REVERSIBILITY OF OPTICAL PATH 47
4.4 CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL REFLECTION 47
4.5 GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION FOR REFRACTION 49
4.6 IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE REFRACTING SURFACE 50
4.7 PRISMS 52
4.8 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION IN A PRISM 53
4.9 MINIMUM DEVIATION 55
4.10 NORMAL INCIDENCE AND EMERGENCE 57
4.11 OPHTHALMIC PRISMS 57
4.12 IMAGES SEEN THROUGH PRISMS 58
4.13 REFLECTING PRISMS 59
4.14 REFRACTOMETRY BY TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (SEE ALSO SECTION 13.5) 61
4.15 OPTICAL FIBRES 64
4.16 IMAGE CONDUITS AND FACE PLATES 65
Chapter 5. Curvature: refraction at a curved surface 70
5.1 CURVATURE 70
5.2 MEASUREMENT OF CURVATURE 71
5.3 CURVATURE OF WAVEFRONTS 75
5.4 SIGN CONVENTION 75
5.5 REFRACTION AT A PLANE SURFACE (CHANGE IN CURVATURE OF THE WAVEFRONT) 77
5.6 REDUCED DISTANCE AND VERGENCE 78
5.7 REFRACTION AT A CURVED SURFACE 78
5.8 YOUNG'S CONSTRUCTION 78
5.9 SPHERICAL ABERRATION. CAUSTIC CURVE 80
5.10 PARAXIAL RAYS 81
5.11 REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE (CHANGE IN VERGENCE) 81
5.12 REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE (CHANGE IN RAY PATH) 83
5.13 CONJUGATE FOCI. PRINCIPAL FOCI. FOCAL LENGTHS 84
5.14 IMAGES OF OBJECT POINTS NOT ON THE AXIS 86
5.15 FURTHER RELATIONSHIPS 89
5.16 IMAGE OF A DISTANT OBJECT 90
Chapter 6. The thin lens 93
6.1 INTRODUCTION 93
6.2 FORMS OF LENSES 93
6.3 REFRACTION BY A LENS 95
6.4 FOCAL POWER 95
6.5 CONJUGATE FOCI AND PRINCIPAL FOCI 97
6.6 FOCAL LENGTHS 98
6.7 CHROMATIC ABERRATION 98
6.8 IMAGES OF EXTRA-AXIAL POINTS 99
6.9 OBJECT OF FINITE SIZE. LATERAL MAGNIFICATION 100
6.10 NEWTON'S RELATION AND THE LAGRANGE INVARIANT 102
6.11 IMAGE OF A DISTANT OBJECT 102
6.12 MAGNIFICATION OF IMAGES IN THE DIRECTION OF THE AXIS 103
6.13 PRISMATIC EFFECT OF A LENS 104
6.14 SYSTEMS OF TWO OR MORE LENSES—ELEMENTARY TREATMENT 106
6.15 GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTIONS 107
6.16 THE G-DIAGRAM 110
6.17 EFFECTIVE POWER OF A LENS 111
6.18 THE MEASUREMENT OF FOCAL LENGTH AND POWER 111
6.19 THE OPTICAL BENCH 112
6.20 OPTICAL BENCH METHODS. POSITIVE LENSES 112
6.21 OPTICAL BENCH METHODS. NEGATIVE LENSES 114
Chapter 7. Reflection at curved surfaces 119
7.1 INTRODUCTION 119
7.2 FOCAL POWER 120
7.3 REFLECTION REGARDED AS A SPECIAL CASE OF REFRACTION 122
7.4 CONJUGATE FOCI. PRINCIPAL FOCUS. FOCAL LENGTH 123
7.5 EXTRA-AXIAL POINTS. GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION. MAGNIFICATION 124
7.6 THE LENS MIRROR 126
7.7 MEASUREMENT OF FOCAL POWER AND FOCAL LENGTH 127
7.8 MEASUREMENT OF CURVATURE OF THE SURFACES OF A LENS 131
7.9 MIRRORS OF LARGE APERTURE 131
Chapter 8. Cylindrical and spherocylindrical lenses 138
8.1 INTRODUCTION 138
8.2 THE CYLINDRICAL SURFACE 138
8.3 REFRACTION BY CYLINDRICAL LENS. LINE FOCUS 140
8.4 SPHERO-CYLINDRICAL LENSES 141
8.5 REFRACTION BY SPHERO-CYLINDRICAL LENS. ASTIGMATIC BEAM 141
8.6 POSITIONS AND LENGTHS OF LINE FOCI, ETC. 143
8.7 IMAGE OF OBJECT OF FINITE SIZE 144
8.8 TORIC LENSES 144
Chapter 9. Lens systems and thick lenses — elementary 147
9.1 INTRODUCTION 147
9.2 EQUIVALENT FOCAL LENGTH AND POWER. PRINCIPAL POINTS 147
9.3 GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION OF IMAGE FORMED BY A LENS SYSTEM 150
9.4 EXPRESSIONS FOR EQUIVALENT POWER, BACK VERTEX POWER, ETC. TWO THIN LENSES IN AIR 150
9.5 THICK LENS IN AIR 154
9.6 POSITION AND SIZE OF IMAGE 155
9.7 THE MEASUREMENT OF FOCAL LENGTH AND POWER 157
Chapter 10. The principles of optical instruments 176
10.1 THE EYE 176
10.2 ACCOMMODATION 178
10.3 EMMETROPIA AND AMETROPIA. FAR AND NEAR POINTS 178
10.4 THE CORRECTION OF AMETROPIA 180
10.5 VISUAL ANGLE AND APPARENT SIZE 181
10.6 APPARENT MAGNIFICATION OR MAGNIFYING POWER. THE MAGNIFIER OR SIMPLE MICROSCOPE 181
10.7 THE COMPOUND MICROSCROPE 183
10.8 THE TELESCOPE 184
10.9 MAGNIFICATION OR MAGNIFYING POWER OF TELESCOPES 185
10.10 ENTRANCE AND EXIT PUPILS. RAMSDEN CIRCLE 185
10.11 GRATICULES 186
10.12 REFLECTING TELESCOPES. CATADIOPTRIC SYSTEMS 186
10.13 EYEPIECES 187
10.14 ERECTING EYEPIECE. TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE 190
10.15 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVE 191
10.16 PROJECTION SYSTEMS 192
Chapter 11. Photometry 196
11.1 INTRODUCTION 196
11.2 LUMINOUS FLUX AND LUMINOUS INTENSITY 198
11.3 ILLUMINATION, ILLUMINANCE 199
11.4 LUMINANCE 203
11.5 STANDARD SOURCES OF LIGHT 205
11.6 COMPARISON PHOTOMETERS 205
11.7 PHOTOELECTRIC PHOTOMETERS 208
11.8 PHOTOMETRY OF SCREENS 210
11.9 THE PHOTOMETRY OF SOURCES, INTEGRATING SPHERES 210
11.10 INCANDESCENT LAMPS 212
11.11 LUMINESCENT SOURCES 213
11.12 THE MEASUREMENT OF ILLUMINATION AND LUMINANCE 213
11.13 THE ACTION OF FILTERS 216
11.14 CONTRAST 217
Chapter 12. The nature of light 222
12.1 INTRODUCTION 222
12.2 THE DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT 222
12.3 WAVE MOTION 224
12.4 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 225
12.5 WAVE TRAINS AND THEIR SUPERPOSITION 231
12.6 WAVEFRONTS 234
12.7 THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC THEORY 234
12.8 INCANDESCENCE AND CHARACTERISTIC COLOURS 235
12.9 THE QUANTUM THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE 236
12.10 STIMULATED EMISSION AND OPTICAL PUMPING 237
12.11 COHERENCE AND RESONANT CAVITIES 238
12.12 GAS LASERS 238
12.13 PULSED LASERS 240
12.14 SEMI-CONDUCTOR LASERS 241
12.15 PHOTOMETRY OF LASERS—VISION HAZARDS 241
12.16 APPLICATION OF LASERS 242
12.17 THE MEASUREMENT OF THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT—HISTORICAL METHODS 242
12.18 THE MEASUREMENT OF THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT—MODERN METHODS 244
Chapter 13. Dispersion and colour — optical materials 247
13.1 DISPERSION 247
13.2 THE PRODUCTION OF A PURE SPECTRUM 247
133 THE SPECTROMETER 248
13.4 MEASUREMENT OF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX WITH THE SPECTROMETER 250
13.5 REFRACTOMETRY 251
13.6 WAVE-LENGTH, COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE 252
13.7 SPECTRA AND SPECTRAL ANALYSIS 254
13.8 SPECTROPHOTOMETERS 255
13.9 FRAUNHOFER LINES 256
13.10 DISPERSIVE POWER 256
13.11 THE ACHROMATIC LENS 258
13.12 CHROMATIC DIFFERENCE OF MAGNIFICATION, LATERAL COLOUR 261
13.13 THE ACHROMATIC PRISM 262
13.14 THE DIRECT VISION PRISM—AMICI PRISM 264
13.15 THE CONSTANT DEVIATION PRISM 264
13.16 IRRATIONALITY OF DISPERSION. SECONDARY SPECTRUM 265
13.17 TYPES OF OPTICAL GLASS 268
13.18 OTHER OPTICAL MATERIALS 269
13.19 ANOMALOUS DISPERSION 270
13.20 PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS 271
13.21 PHOTOCHROMIC SPECTACLES 271
13.22 THE ULTRA-VIOLET AND ITS APPLICATIONS 273
13.23 THE INFRA-RED AND ITS APPLICATIONS 274
13.24 COLOUR 276
13.25 COLOUR MIXING AND MEASUREMENT 277
13.26 COLOURED OBJECTS 281
13.27 COLOUR DUE TO THE SCATTERING OF LIGHT 282
Chapter 14. Interference and optical films 287
14.1 INTRODUCTION 287
14.2 CONDITIONS FOR THE INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT 287
14.3 COHERENCE, INCOHERENCE AND MUTUAL COHERENCE 289
14.4 INTERFERENCE WITH INCOHERENT SOURCES 289
14.5 INTERFERENCE WITH COHERENT SOURCES 291
14.6 THE FORM OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES 292
14.7 MULTIPLE-BEAM INTERFERENCE 295
14.8 INTERFERENCE BY PARTIAL REFLECTION 297
14.9 THIN FILMS 298
14.10 NEWTON'S RINGS AND FIZEAU FRINGES 301
14.11 INTERFERENCE WITH THICK PLATES 303
14.12 CONTOUR AND INDEX MAPPING 304
14.13 EQUAL-PATH INTERFEROMETERS 305
14.14 UNEQUAL-PATH INTERFEROMETERS 307
14.15 SINGLE-LAYER ANTI-REFLECTION COATINGS 309
14.16 VACUUM COATING METHODS 311
14.17 FRONT-REFLECTION MIRRORS 312
14.18 MULTI-LAYER ANTI-REFLECTION (AR) COATINGS 313
14.19 MULTI-LAYER INTERFERENCE FILTERS 314
14.20 OPTICAL COATINGS AND INTERFERENCE—PERTINENT QUESTIONS 315
Chapter 15. Diffraction and holography 319
15.1 INTRODUCTION 319
15.2 HALF-PERIOD ZONES—SPHERICAL WAVES 319
15.3 APPROXIMATE RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT 322
15.4 SIMPLE DIFFRACTION EFFECTS 323
15.5 HALF-PERIOD ZONES—CYLINDRICAL WAVES 324
15.6 CORNU'S SPIRAL, FRESNEL'S EQUATIONS 326
15.7 FRESNEL DIFFRACTION EFFECTS 327
15.8 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 329
15.9 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION EFFECTS—RECTANGUL ARAPERTURES 330
15.10 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION EFFECTS—CIRCULAR APERTURES 333
15.11 LIMIT OF RESOLUTION, RESOLVING POWER 335
15.12 DIFFRACTION AND OPTICAL PROCESSING 339
15.13 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION EFFECTS—MULTIPLE APERTURES 341
15.14 THE DIFFRACTION GRATING 344
15.15 GRATING IMAGES AND THE OPTICAL TRANSFER FUNCTION 348
15.16 HOLOGRAPHY, DIFFRACTIVE OPTICS 350
Chapter 16. Polarization 357
16.1 INTRODUCTION 357
16.2 LINEAR POLARIZATION BY ANISOTROPY—CRYSTALS AND GRIDS 359
16.3 LINEAR POLARIZATION BY ANISOTROPY—BIREFRINGENCE 361
16.4 LINEAR POLARIZATION BY ISOTROPY-SCATTERING AND REFLECTION 367
16.5 RETARDERS AND CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT 372
16.6 DEFINITIONS AND TYPICAL VALUES 374
16.7 METHODS OF CALCULATION 376
16.8 APPLICATIONS OF POLARIZED LIGHT 377
16.9 POLARIZATION AND VISION 378
16.10 OTHER ASPECTS OF POLARIZED LIGHT 379
Chapter 17. The effects of limitation of beams in optical systems 384
17.1 INTRODUCTION 384
17.2 ENTRANCE AND EXIT PUPILS 385
17.3 FIELD OF VIEW 386
17.4 DEPTH OF FOCUS 390
17.5 THE TELECENTRIC PRINCIPLE 392
17.6 THE ILLUMINATION OF AN IMAGE 393
17.7 THE NATURE OF A BEAM 395
17.8 OBJECT ILLUMINATED BY TRANSMITTED LIGHT. CONDENSERS 396
Chapter 18. Aberrations and image quality 401
18.1 INTRODUCTION 401
18.2 CHROMATIC ABERRATION AND CHROMATIC DIFFERENCE OF ABERRATION 405
18.3 SPHERICAL ABERRATION 405
18.4 OBLIQUE ABERRATIONS: 1—CURVATURE OF FIELD AND ASTIGMATISM 414
18.5 OBLIQUE ABERRATIONS: II—COMA 422
18.6 ABERRATIONS AND STOP POSITION—DISTORTION 427
18.7 RAY TRACING: 1—MERIDIONAL RAYS 430
18.8 RAY TRACING: 2—SKEW RAYS 433
18.9 LENS DESIGN 436
18.10 IMAGE QUALITY ASSESSMENT—POINTS AND PATTERNS 439
18.11 LENS TESTING 441
Chapter 19. Lens systems — general 447
19.1 CENTRED SYSTEM OF SPHERICAL SURFACES. PARAXIAL REGION 447
19.2 CHANGE OF VERGENCE OF ADVANCING WAVEFRONT 448
19.3 CALCULATION FOR PARAXIAL PENCILS THROUGH A CENTRED SYSTEM 449
19.4 CARDINAL POINTS OF A CENTRED SYSTEM 450
19.5 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE-SCHEMATIC EYE 451
19.6 SPECIAL CASE OF TWO SURFACES 452
19.7 BACK VERTEX POWER AND POSITIONS OF PRINCIPAL POINTS 453
19.8 CONJUGATE RELATIONS OF CENTRED SYSTEM 454
19.9 NODAL POINTS 456
19.10 COMBINATION OF TWO CENTRED SYSTEMS 457
19.11 LENS MIRROR OR THICK MIRROR 460
Chapter 20. The eye as an optical instrument 465
20.1 INTRODUCTION 465
20.2 MORE SCHEMATIC EYES 465
20.3 CHROMATIC ABERRATION OF THE EYE 468
20.4 DIFFRACTION AND THE EYE 469
20.5 ABERRATIONS OF THE LENS AND CORNEA 470
20.6 OPTICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE EYE 472
20.7 TOTAL PERFORMANCE OF THE EYE 476
20.8 VARIATION IN VISUAL PERFORMANCE WITH FOCUS 478
20.9 THE MEASUREMENT OF CONTRAST SENSITIVITY 480
20.10 THE MEASUREMENT OF ACCOMMODATION—THE LASER OPTOMETER 481
Appendices 486
Answers to exercises 494
Index 506