Handbook of Chemical Technology and Pollution Control (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Handbook of Chemical Technology and Pollution Control 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 20
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 22
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 24
Chapter 1. Background and Technical Aspects 26
1.1. Important General Characteristics 26
1.2. Types and Significance of Information 29
1.3. The Value of Integration 32
1.4. The Economy of Scale 33
1.5. Chemical Processing 36
1.6. Chemical Volume Perspectives 51
Review Questions 53
Further Reading 54
References 55
Chapter 2. Air Quality Measurement and Effects of Pollution 56
2.1. Significance of Human Activity on Atmospheric Quality 56
2.2. Natural Contaminants 57
2.3. Classification of Air Pollutants 58
2.4. Particulate Measurement and Identification 60
2.5. Aerosol Measurement and Identification 62
2.6. Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants 65
2.7. Effects of Air Pollutants 75
Review Questions 88
Further Reading 90
References 91
Chapter 3. Air Pollution Control Priorities and Methods 94
3.1. Air Pollutant Inventories 94
3.2. Automotive Emission Control 96
3.3. Air Pollutant Weighting 99
3.4. Methods and Limitations of Air Pollutant Dispersal 100
3.5. Air Pollution Abatement by Containment 103
3.6. Postcombustion Emission Control 105
Review Questions 121
Further Reading 122
References 122
Chapter 4. Water Quality Measurement 124
4.1. Water Quality and Supply Overview 124
4.2. Water Quality Criteria and Their Measurement 127
4.3. Specifying Concentrations in Water 127
4.4. Suspended Solids 128
4.5. Dissolved Solids 130
4.6. Total Solids or Residue Analysis 134
4.7. Dissolved Oxygen Content 134
4.8. Relative Acidity and Alkalinity 139
4.9. Toxic Substances 140
4.10. Micro-Organisms 142
4.11. Temperature 143
4.12. Oxygen Demand 145
4.13. Biological Indicators 150
Review Questions 152
Further Reading 153
References 153
Chapter 5. Raw Water Processing and Wastewater Treatment 156
5.1. Water Quality Related to End Uses 156
5.2. Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies 157
5.3. Simple Municipal Water Treatment 157
5.4. More Elaborate Municipal Water Treatment Methods 161
5.5. Municipal Water by Desalination 164
5.6. Water Quality Requirements of Industry 167
5.7. Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters 168
5.8. Discharge Requirements and Postdischarge Remedies 169
5.9. Stream Assimilatory Capacities 170
5.10. Primary and Secondary Sewage Treatment 171
5.11. Tertiary or Advanced Sewage Treatment 176
5.12. Sludge Handling and Disposal 178
5.13. Industrial Liquid Waste Disposal 179
Review Questions 186
Further Reading 188
References 188
Chapter 6. Natural and Derived Sodium and Potassium Salts 192
6.1. Sodium Chloride 192
6.2. Potassium Chloride 201
6.3. Sodium Sulfate 211
Review Questions 213
Further Reading 214
References 214
Chapter 7. Industrial Bases by Chemical Routes 216
7.1. Calcium Carbonate 216
7.2. Calcium Oxide 217
7.3. Calcium Hydroxide 220
7.4. Natural and Synthetic Sodium Carbonate 222
7.5. Sodium Hydroxide by Causticization 226
Review Questions 231
Further Reading 232
References 232
Chapter 8. Electrolytic Sodium Hydroxide, Chlorine, and Related Commodities 234
8.1. Electrochemical Background and Brine Pretreatment 234
8.2. Brine Electrolysis in Diaphragm Cells 235
8.3. Brine Electrolysis in Chlorate Cells 242
8.4. Electrochemical Aspects of Brine Electrolysis 242
8.5. Brine Electrolysis in Mercury Cells 245
8.6. Emission Control 249
8.7. New Developments in Brine Electrolysis 254
8.8. Balancing Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide Production 257
Review Questions 260
Further Reading 263
References 263
Chapter 9. Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid 266
9.1. Commercial Production of Sulfur 266
9.2. Properties of Elemental Sulfur 269
9.3. Sulfur Recovery by Mining and Retorting 270
9.4. Frasch Sulfur 271
9.5. Sulfur from Sour Natural Gas 275
9.6. Sulfuric Acid 282
9.7. Emission Containment for Sulfuric Acid Plants 293
9.8. Recycling of Sulfuric Acid 297
Review Questions 300
Further Reading 301
References 301
Chapter 10. Phosphorus and Phosphoric Acid 304
10.1. Phosphate Rock Deposits and Beneficiation 304
10.2. Elemental Phosphorus 307
10.3. Phosphoric Acid via Phosphorus Combustion 315
10.4. Phosphoric Acid Using Sulfuric Acid Acidulation 317
10.5. Phosphoric Acid Using Hydrochloric Acid Acidulation 325
10.6. Major Producers and Users of Phosphoric Acid 331
Review Questions 332
Further Reading 333
References 333
Chapter 11. Ammonia, Nitric Acid, and Their Derivatives 336
11.1. Ammonia 336
11.2. Nitric Acid 356
11.3. Commercial Ammonium Nitrate 367
11 4. Production of Urea 369
11.5. Synthetic Fertilizers 371
Review Questions 376
Further Reading 377
References 378
Chapter 12. Aluminum and Compounds 380
12.1. Historical Background 380
12.2. Alumina from Bauxite: The Bayer Process 383
12.3. Aluminum by the Electrolysis of Alumina 386
12.4. New Developments in Aluminum Production 393
12.5. Emission Control Practices 395
12.6. Properties and Uses of Aluminum 401
12.7. Preparation and Uses of Aluminum Compounds 403
Review Questions 405
Further Reading 405
References 405
Chapter 13. Ore Enrichment and Smelting of Copper 408
13.1. Early Development 408
13.2. Mining of Ores and Beneficiation 410
13.3. Smelting and Refining of Concentrates 416
13.4. Emission Control Practices 425
13.5. Hydrometallurgical Copper Recovery 431
Review Questions 436
Further Reading 436
References 437
Chapter 14. Production of Iron and Steel 440
14.1. Early History and Development 440
14.2. Reduction of Iron Ores 444
14.3. The Making of Mild and Carbon Steels 450
14.4. Properties and Uses of Iron and Steels 460
14.5. Emission Control in Iron and Steel Production 466
Review Questions 472
Further Reading 472
References 472
Chapter 15. Production of Pulp and Paper 474
15.1. Background and Distribution of the Industry 474
15.2. Wood Composition and Morphology 477
15.3. Preparation of Wood for Pulping 483
15.4. Mechanical Pulping 484
15.5. Chemical Pulping Processes 489
15.6. Bleaching of Wood Pulps 506
15.7. Market Pulp and Papermaking 511
15.8. Pulping Emission Control Measures 513
15.9. Environmental Aspects of Papermaking and Paper Recycling 521
Review Questions 522
Further Reading 523
References 524
Chapter 16. Fermentation and Other Microbiological Processes 526
16.1. General Microbiological Principles 526
16.2. Brewing of Beer 530
16.3. Winemaking 540
16.4. Beverage Spirits 548
16.5. Industrial Ethyl Alcohol 559
16.6. Aerobic Microbiological Processes 563
Review Questions 572
Further Reading 574
References 574
Chapter 17. Petroleum Production and Transport 578
17.1. Production of Conventional Petroleum 578
17.2. Liquid Fuel from Nonconventional Sources 592
17.3. Environmental Aspects of Petroleum Production 602
Review Questions 608
Further Reading 609
References 609
Chapter 18. Petroleum Refining 612
18.1. Composition of Conventional Petroleum 612
18.2. Desalting and Distillation 617
18.3. Molecular Modification for Gasoline Production 623
18.4. Manufacture of Lubricating Oils 636
18.5. Fuel Oils, Asphalts, and Pitches 643
18.6. Refinery Emission Control 646
Review Questions 653
Further Reading 654
References 654
Chapter 19. Petrochemicals 658
19.1. Background 658
19.2. Carbon Black 660
19.3. Isopropanol (Isopropyl Alcohol) 662
19.4. Alkene and Aromatic Products 663
19.5. Products from Methane 668
19.6. Products from Ethylene 670
19.7. Products from Propylene 675
19.8. Products from Isobutylene (2-Methylpropene) 679
19.9. Products from Benzene, Toluene, and the Xylenes (BTX) 680
19.10. Environmental Concerns 686
Review Questions 687
Further Reading 688
References 689
Chapter 20. Condensation (Step-Growth) Polymer Theory 690
20.1. Background 690
20.2. Basic Polymer Concepts 692
20.3. Polymerization Processes 694
20.4. Polymer Molecular Weights 695
20.5. Polycondensation Polymers 698
20.6. Polycondensation Mechanisms 699
20.7. Polycondensation Kinetics 702
20.8. Quantitative Molecular Weight Control 704
20.9. Nonlinear Polycondensations 707
Review Questions 708
Further Reading 708
References 709
Chapter 21. Commercial Polycondensation (Step-Growth) Polymers 710
21.1. Early Development 710
21.2. Polyester Resins 711
21.3. The Polyamides 716
21.4. Polyurethanes 721
21.5. Epoxy Resins 724
21.6. Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins 726
21.7. Environmental and Recycle Aspects 728
Review Questions 729
Further Reading 730
References 731
Chapter 22. Addition (Chain Reaction) Polymer Theory 734
22.1. Addition (Vinyl-Type) Polymers 734
22.2. Comparison of Condensation and Chain Reaction Polymerization 735
22.3. Radical Chain Polymerization Methods 738
22.4. Ionic Initiators for Vinyl Monomers 742
22.5. Basic Polymer Stereochemistry 750
22.6. Coordination Polymerization 754
Review Questions 756
Further Reading 757
References 757
Chapter 23. Commercial Addition (Vinyl-Type) Polymers 758
23.1. Polyethylene (PE) 758
23.2. Polypropylene (PP) 763
23.3. Poly (vinyl Chloride) (PVC) 764
23.4. Polystyrene (PS) 766
23.5. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 768
23.6. Environmental Aspects of Vinylic Polymers (Plastics) 770
Review Questions 776
Further Reading 776
References 777
APPENDIX I: Constants, SI Units and Multiples, and Formulas 778
APPENDIX 2: Conversion Factors 780
SUBJECT INDEX 782