Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing (eBook)

Jurgen Garche, Patrick T. Moseley (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2014 | 1. Auflage
492 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-444-62610-3 (ISBN)

Electricity from renewable sources of energy is plagued by fluctuations (due to variations in wind strength or the intensity of insolation) resulting in a lack of stability if the energy supplied from such sources is used in 'real time'. An important solution to this problem is to store the energy electrochemically (in a secondary battery or in hydrogen and its derivatives) and to make use of it in a controlled fashion at some time after it has been initially gathered and stored. Electrochemical battery storage systems are the major technologies for decentralized storage systems and hydrogen is the only solution for long-term storage systems to provide energy during extended periods of low wind speeds or solar insolation. Future electricity grid design has to include storage systems as a major component for grid stability and for security of supply. The technology of systems designed to achieve this regulation of the supply of renewable energy, and a survey of the markets that they will serve, is the subject of this book. It includes economic aspects to guide the development of technology in the right direction.

Provides state-of-the-art information on all of the storage systems together with an assessment of competing technologies
Features detailed technical, economic and environmental impact information of different storage systems
Contains information about the challenges that must be faced for batteries and hydrogen-storage to be used in conjunction with a fluctuating (renewable energy) power supply

Front
1
Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and
4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Contributors 14
Foreword by Dr. Derek Pooley 16
Preface 18
Part I -
20
Chapter 1 - The Exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy for Power Generation 22
1.1 ENERGY AND SOCIETY 22
1.2 ENERGY AND ELECTRICITY 23
1.3 THE ROLE OF ENERGY STORAGE 26
1.4 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS 27
1.5 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY STORAGE 28
1.6 COMMERCIALIZATION OF ENERGY STORAGE 30
REFERENCES 30
Chapter 2 - Classification of Storage Systems 32
2.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION 32
2.2 FLEXIBILITY OPTIONS 33
2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLASSIFICATIONS 33
2.4 CONCLUSION 40
Chapter 3 - Challenges of Power Systems 42
3.1 POWER SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS 42
3.2 THE ROLE OF STORAGE SYSTEMS FOR FUTURE CHALLENGES IN THE ELECTRICAL NETWORK 43
3.3 DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT AND OTHER ALTERNATIVES TO STORAGE SYSTEMS 45
3.4 SUPPLY OF RESERVE POWER 48
REFERENCES 51
Chapter 4 - Applications and Markets for Grid-Connected Storage Systems 52
4.1 INTRODUCTION 52
4.2 FREQUENCY CONTROL 54
4.3 SELF-SUPPLY 61
4.4 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY 65
4.5 ARBITRAGE/ENERGY TRADING 67
4.6 LOAD LEVELING/PEAK SHAVING 69
4.7 OTHER MARKETS AND APPLICATIONS 69
REFERENCES 71
Chapter 5 - Existing Markets for Storage Systems in Off-Grid Applications 72
5.1 DIFFERENT SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY 72
5.2 IMPACT OF THE USER 73
Chapter 6 - Review of the Need for Storage Capacity Depending on the Share of Renewable Energies 80
6.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 80
6.2 SELECTED STUDIES WITH GERMAN FOCUS 82
6.3 SELECTED STUDIES WITH EUROPEAN FOCUS 90
6.4 DISCUSSION OF STUDY RESULTS 96
6.5 CONCLUSIONS 103
ABBREVIATIONS 104
REFERENCES 104
Part II -
106
Chapter 7 - Overview of Nonelectrochemical Storage Technologies 108
7.1 INTRODUCTION 108
7.2 ‘ELECTRICAL’ STORAGE SYSTEMS 109
7.3 ‘MECHANICAL’ STORAGE SYSTEMS 111
7.4 ‘THERMOELECTRIC’ ENERGY STORAGE 118
7.5 STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES AT THE CONCEPT STAGE 119
7.6 SUMMARY 120
REFERENCES 121
Chapter 8 - Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies—Electrolyzer Technologies 122
8.1 INTRODUCTION 122
8.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF WATER ELECTROLYSIS 124
8.3 ALKALINE WATER ELECTROLYSIS 128
8.4 PEM WATER ELECTROLYSIS 133
8.5 HIGH-TEMPERATURE WATER ELECTROLYSIS 139
8.6 MANUFACTURERS AND DEVELOPERS OF ELECTROLYZERS 143
8.7 COST ISSUES 144
8.8 SUMMARY 145
ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS 145
REFERENCES 146
Chapter 9 - Large-Scale Hydrogen Energy Storage 148
9.1 INTRODUCTION 148
9.2 ELECTROLYZER 150
9.3 HYDROGEN GAS STORAGE 151
9.4 RECONVERSION OF THE HYDROGEN INTO ELECTRICITY 155
9.5 COST ISSUES: LEVELIZED COST OF ENERGY 158
9.6 ACTUAL STATUS AND OUTLOOK 160
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 161
REFERENCES 161
Chapter 10 - Hydrogen Conversion into Electricity and Thermal Energy by Fuel Cells: Use of H2-Systems and Batteries 162
10.1 INTRODUCTION 162
10.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL POWER SOURCES 163
10.3 HYDROGEN-BASED ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS 164
10.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE HYDROGEN ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM 168
10.5 DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS 170
10.6 CASE STUDY: A GENERAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM LAYOUT FOR MAXIMIZED USE OF RENEWABLE ENERGIES 171
10.7 CASE STUDY OF A PV-BASED SYSTEM MINIMIZING GRID INTERACTION 172
10.8 CONCLUSIONS 174
10.9 SUMMARY 176
REFERENCES 176
Chapter 11 - PEM Electrolyzers and PEM Regenerative Fuel Cells Industrial View 178
11.1 INTRODUCTION 178
11.2 GENERAL TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION 179
11.3 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND LIFETIME 188
11.4 NECESSARY ACCESSORIES 192
11.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 193
11.6 COST ISSUES 194
11.7 ACTUAL STATUS 197
11.8 SUMMARY 199
REFERENCES 199
Chapter 12 - Energy Carriers Made from Hydrogen 202
12.1 INTRODUCTION 202
12.2 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 204
12.3 METHANE 207
12.4 METHANOL 209
12.5 DIMETHYL ETHER 210
12.6 FISCHER–TROPSCH SYNFUELS 211
12.7 HIGHER ALCOHOLS AND ETHERS 214
12.8 AMMONIA 215
12.9 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK 216
ABBREVIATIONS 217
REFERENCES 217
Chapter 13 - Energy Storage with Lead–Acid Batteries 220
13.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF LEAD–ACID TECHNOLOGY 220
13.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND AGING 226
13.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT 229
13.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 231
13.5 COST ISSUES 232
13.6 PAST/PRESENT APPLICATIONS, ACTIVITIES AND MARKETS 232
ACRONYMS AND INITIALISMS 240
SYMBOLS 241
FURTHER READING 241
Chapter 14 - Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery Energy Storage 242
14.1 INTRODUCTION 242
14.2 NI-CD AND NI-MH TECHNOLOGIES 243
14.3 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND LIFETIME AND AGING ASPECTS 255
14.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 260
14.5 ACTUAL STATUS 262
14.6 CONCLUSION 269
FURTHER READING 269
Chapter 15 - High-Temperature Sodium Batteries for Energy Storage 272
15.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE SODIUM BATTERY TECHNOLOGY 272
15.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND AGING 277
15.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT 280
15.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 281
15.5 COST ISSUES 283
15.6 CURRENT STATUS 284
15.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS 286
ACRONYMS AND INITIALISMS 286
SYMBOLS AND UNITS 286
REFERENCES 286
FURTHER READING 287
Chapter 16 - Lithium Battery Energy Storage: State of the Art Including Lithium–Air and Lithium–Sulfur Systems 288
16.1 ENERGY STORAGE IN LITHIUM BATTERIES 289
16.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE, LIFETIME, AND AGING 309
16.3 ACCESSORIES 312
16.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 317
16.5 COST ISSUES 318
16.6 STATE OF THE ART 320
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS 325
REFERENCES 325
Chapter 17 - Redox Flow Batteries 328
17.1 INTRODUCTION 328
17.2 FLOW BATTERY CHEMISTRIES 329
17.3 COST CONSIDERATIONS 354
17.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 354
REFERENCES 355
FURTHER READINGS 355
Chapter 18 - Metal Storage/Metal Air (Zn, Fe, Al, Mg) 356
18.1 GENERAL TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNOLOGY 356
18.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE, LIFETIME, AND AGING ASPECTS 359
18.3 NECESSARY ACCESSORIES 361
18.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 362
18.5 COST ISSUES (TODAY, IN 5YEARS, AND IN 10YEARS) 362
18.6 ACTUAL STATUS 363
FURTHER READING 363
Chapter 19 - Electrochemical Double-layer Capacitors 364
19.1 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 365
19.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE, LIFETIME, AND AGING ASPECTS 401
19.3 ACCESSORIES 415
19.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 416
19.5 COST ISSUES 417
19.6 ACTUAL STATUS 418
SYMBOLS AND UNITS 424
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 425
FURTHER READING 425
FURTHER READING 425
FURTHER READING 425
Part III -
428
Chapter 20 - Battery Management and Battery Diagnostics 430
20.1 INTRODUCTION 430
20.2 BATTERY PARAMETERS—MONITORING AND CONTROL 431
20.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS 437
20.4 BATTERY DIAGNOSTICS 448
20.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF BATTERY MANAGEMENT AND BATTERY DIAGNOSTICS 451
20.6 CONCLUSIONS 453
REFERENCES 453
Chapter 21 - Life Cycle Cost Calculation and Comparison for Different Reference Cases and Market Segments 456
21.1 MOTIVATION 456
21.2 METHODOLOGY 457
21.3 REFERENCE CASES 463
21.4 EXAMPLE RESULTS 464
21.5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS 469
Chapter 22 - ‘Double Use’ of Storage Systems 472
22.1 INTRODUCTION 472
22.2 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 472
22.3 ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERIES—VEHICLE TO GRID 473
22.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC HOME STORAGE 478
22.5 SECOND LIFE OF VEHICLE BATTERIES 480
REFERENCES 482
Index 484

Chapter 2

Classification of Storage Systems

Dirk Uwe Sauer Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Abstract

There are numerous storage technologies and flexibility options to serve the balancing between demand and supply. Even for 100% renewable energy scenarios a sufficient range of technologies is available to solve the storage demands.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to classify the different storage technologies and flexibility options into different categories. This is important especially from an application's point of view, because not any storage technology can be applied in any application. The systematic classifications presented in this chapter help to compare only those technologies for a certain application, grid level and service demand, which are really of relevance for a given problem and which can compete in the same market.

Keywords

Classification; Flexibility options; Negative control power; Positive control power; Storage systems

Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction and Motivation 13

2.2 Flexibility Options 14

2.3 Different Types of Classifications 14

2.3.1 Classification According to the Needs of the Grid 15

2.3.1.1 ‘Electricity to Electricity’ Storage Technologies 15

2.3.1.2 ‘Electricity to Anything’ Flexibility Options 15

2.3.1.3 ‘Anything to Electricity’ Flexibility Options 16

2.3.2 Classification According to the Supply Time of the Storage System 16

2.3.3 Classification as Single-purpose and Double-use Storage Systems 18

2.3.4 Classification According to the Position in the Grid and the Service Offers 18

2.4 Conclusion 21

2.1. Introduction and Motivation

There is a very wide variety of storage technologies for stationary applications, but no technology is suited to serve all applications. A comparison of storage technologies makes sense only with respect to a certain application. Comparison is very difficult anyway, because of the numerous parameters that define the technical and economical performance of a storage system (see also Chapter 21).

Therefore it is necessary to use classification systems. Generally the classification can be made based on the way energy is stored, e.g., mechanical, electrical, or chemical. However, from an application point of view it makes more sense to classify the storage technologies according to the services they can offer to the markets. Technologies within such a class are in competition to each other, because they must earn their money in the same market under similar conditions.

For stationary applications, in contrast to mobile applications, energy density and power density are of minor importance. Therefore the well-known sorting of technologies according to the Ragone diagram has little meaning in stationary applications, and is not used here.

When classifying storage technologies, it automatically turns out that a broader view is necessary. Grid applications do not need storage systems; they need flexibility options to meet the requirements of an efficient, reliable, and safe grid operation. Storage systems are one option in the portfolio of flexibility options and they are in competition with all other technologies. Surely storage systems are the smartest solution for the flexibility demand, but they are not necessarily the cheapest. Therefore, storage technologies and the demand for storage systems need to be discussed in the context of the flexibility options. Even though this book focuses on the description of storage technologies, other flexibility options and their potential for the grid service market are described briefly in this chapter.

When discussing flexibility options it becomes obvious that thermal storage systems and gas storage systems need to be discussed as well (Figure 2.1). Storage systems, which deliver electrical energy, are the technology of choice if electrical energy is required by the end user. If the end user requires heat or gas, energy should be converted as soon as possible into the respective form of energy and should be stored therein. Gas as well as heat storage systems are significantly cheaper than electrical storage systems. Whereas gas is also cheap to transport, heat transport is very expensive and therefore heat should be generated close to the location where it is needed. Furthermore, it is worth taking into account the mobility market, which can serve as a storage system either for gas (for vehicles with combustion engines) or electricity (for electric vehicles).

FIGURE 2.1 Intersectoral connection of energy systems.

Finally, from the electrical grids' point of view, generating and storing gas is a flexibility option as well as generating and storing heat.

2.2. Flexibility Options

To operate a power grid it is necessary to balance, at any point in time demand and supply of electrical energy. As the electricity grid has no storage capacity on its own, it is essential to have very fast reacting technologies available to achieve the balancing. Generally positive as well as negative control power is required.

Positive control power is needed if the demand is higher than the supply. It can be delivered either by feeding additional power to the grid, e.g., from any type of power generator or from a storage system or by shutting down energy consumers. Reducing or shutting down power consumption in industry for a certain while is an example for positive control power. But also stopping charging a storage system is a load reduction and therefore positive control power. If, e.g., large quantities of electrical vehicles are on the grid to get charged, any reduction in charging power and shift of the charge to a later point in time is positive control power.

Negative control power is needed if the power supply exceeds the demand. It can be delivered either by reducing the output power of power generators or by increasing the demand. Electrical space heating systems and generating hydrogen by means of electrolysis are two of the demand-side management options that deliver negative control power. But also starting charging of storage systems is negative control power. A reduction of the output power saves fuel in conventional power plants, but results in wasting energy for renewable power generators. Therefore any way to use this energy by means of demand-side management is to be preferred. However, sometimes the existing regulations prevent the use of such surplus energy, even though it can be offered at a very low price. The problem for the end user is that he has to pay taxes, grid fees, and potentially many other fees for this originally cheap energy. Heat energy has only a certain value and if taxes and fees for electricity exceed this value, nobody will take the surplus energy. This is surely contradictory to an efficient energy supply system.

FIGURE 2.2 Various technology options competing with storage systems in the market for flexibility.

Among others, flexibility options are:

1. Positive control power

a. Power-controlled combined heat and power units

b. Demand-side management in households and industry (switching off of loads)

c. Flexible conventional power plants

d. Demand-controlled biomass power generators

e. Storage system for electrical power (discharge)

2. Negative control power

a. Power to heat

b. Demand-side management in households and industry (switching on of loads)

c. Shutdown of power generators

d. Power to gas/power to chemicals

e. Storage system for electrical power (charge)

Combinations of devices offering positive or negative control power can serve the grid with the same services as a storage system.

Besides the classical flexibility options, grid extension and smart grids reduce the demand of storage technologies. The various technology options are summarized in Figure 2.2. Even though grid and storage systems are not alternatives but complement each other. Grids allow shifting energy with respect to the location; storage systems shift energy availability in time. Time and area are orthogonal dimensions and this shows directly that both are necessary. Nevertheless intelligent combination of both allows minimizing the demand of storage systems and grids.

2.3. Different Types of Classifications

There are several different ways for classifying storage technologies. The classifications are based on different viewpoints.

1. Classification according to the needs of the grid (Section 2.3.1)

2. Classification according to the physical way of storing energy for reconversion into electrical energy (Section 2.3.1.1)

3. Classification according to the supply time of the storage system (Section 2.3.2)

4. Classification as single-and multipurpose storage systems (Section 2.3.3)

5....

Erscheint lt. Verlag	27.10.2014
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie ► Technische Chemie
	Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
	Technik ► Maschinenbau
ISBN-10	0-444-62610-7 / 0444626107
ISBN-13	978-0-444-62610-3 / 9780444626103

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