Human Neuroanatomy

By James Augustine

Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous System
1.1. Neurons
1.1.1. Neuronal Cell Body (Soma)
1.1.2. Axon Hillock
1.1.3. Neuronal Processes – Axons and Dendrites
1.2. Classification of Neurons
1.2.1. Neuronal Classification by Function
1.2.2. Neuronal Classification by Number of Processes
1.3. The Synapse
1.3.1. Components of a Synapse
1.3.2. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
1.3.3. Neuronal Plasticity
1.3.4. The Neuropil
1.4. Neuroglial Cells
1.4.1. Neuroglial Cells differ from Neurons
1.4.2. Identification of Neuroglia
1.4.3. Neuroglial Function
1.4.4. Neuroglial Cells and Aging
1.5. Axonal Transport
1.5.1. Functions of Axonal Transport
1.5.2. Defective Axonal Transport
1.6. Degeneration and Regeneration
1.6.1. Axon or Retrograde Reaction
1.6.2. Anterograde Degeneration
1.6.3. Retrograde Degeneration
1.6.4. Regeneration of Peripheral Nerves
1.6.5. Regeneration and Neurotrophic Factors
1.6.6. Regeneration in the Central Nervous System
1.7. Neural Transplantation
Further Reading
Chapter 2: Development of the Nervous System
2.1. First Week of Development (Fertilization, Free Blastocyst, Attaching Blastocyst)
2.1.1. Fertilization
2.1.2. From Two Cells to the Free Blastocyst
2.2. Second Week of Development (Implantation, Primitive Streak Appears, Three Layers of Cells)
2.2.1. Implantation and the Appearance of Two Distinct Layers of Cells
2.2.2. Primitive Streak and a Third Layer of Cells Appear
2.3. Third Week of Development (Neural Plate, Groove, and Folds, Three Main Divisions of the Brain)
2.3.1. Primitive Node and Notochordal Process Appear
2.3.2. Neural Plate, Groove, Folds and Neuromeres Appear
2.3.3. Three Main Divisions of the Brain Identifiable
2.3.4. Mesencephalic Flexure Appears
2.4. Fourth Week of Development (Neural Tube Forms and Closes, Neural Crest Formation Continues)
2.4.1. Formation of the Neural Tube
2.4.2. Rostral and Caudal Neuropores Remain Temporarily Open
2.4.3. Neural Crest Cells Emerge
2.4.4. Neural Canal – the Future Ventricular System
2.4.5. Neuropores Close and the Closed Neural Tube is Filled with Fluid
2.4.6. Cervical Flexure Present
2.5. Fifth Week of Development (Five Subdivisions of the Brain Identifiable)
2.5.1. Simple Tube Transforms into Complex Organ System
2.5.2. Five Subdivisions of the Brain Appear
2.5.3. Brain Vesicles vs. Brain Regions
2.6. Vulnerability of the Developing Nervous System
2.7. Congenital Malformations of the Nervous System
2.7.1. Spinal Dysraphism
2.7.2. Anencephaly
Further Reading
Chapter 3: The Spinal Cord
3.1. Embryological Considerations
3.1.1. Layers of the Developing Spinal Cord
3.1.2. Formation of Ventral Gray Columns and Ventral Roots
3.1.3. Formation of Dorsal Gray Columns
3.1.4. Dorsal and Ventral Horns vs. Dorsal and Ventral Gray Columns
3.1.5. Development of Neural Crest Cells
3.1.6. The Framework of the Adult Cord is Present at Birth
3.2. Gross Anatomy
3.2.1. Spinal Cord Weight and Length
3.2.2. Spinal Segments, Regions, and Enlargements
3.2.3. Spinal Segments in Each Region are of Unequal Length
3.2.4. Conus Medullaris, Filum Terminale, and Cauda Equina
3.2.5. Termination of the Adult Spinal Cord
3.2.6. Differential Rate of Growth: Vertebral Column vs. the Spinal Cord
3.2.7. Relationship between Spinal Segments and Vertebrae
3.3. Nuclear Groups – Gray Matter
3.3.1. General Arrangement of Spinal Cord Gray Matter
3.3.2. Gray Matter at Enlargement Levels
3.3.3. Spinal Laminae
3.3.4. Dorsal Horn
3.3.5. Lateral Horn
3.3.6. Ventral Horn
3.4. Functional Classes of Neurons
3.4.1. Four Classes of Neurons in the Spinal Cord
3.4.2. General Somatic vs. General Visceral Afferent Neurons
3.4.3. General Somatic vs. General Visceral Efferent Neurons
3.4.4. Some Ventral Root Axons are Sensory
3.5. Funiculi/Fasciculi/Tracts – White Matter
3.6. Spinal Reflexes
3.7. Spinal Meninges and Related Spaces
3.7.1. Spinal Dura Mater
3.7.2. Spinal Arachnoid
3.7.3. Spinal Pia Mater
3.8. Spinal Cord Injury
3.8.1. Transverse Hemisection of the Spinal Cord (Brown-Séquard Syndrome)
3.8.2. Syringomyelia
3.9. Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
Further Reading
Chapter 4: The Brain Stem
4.1. External Features
4.1.1. Medulla Oblongata
4.1.2. Pons
4.1.3. Midbrain
4.2. Cerebellum and Fourth Ventricle
4.2.1. Cerebellum
4.2.2. Fourth Ventricle
4.3. Organization of Brain Stem Neuronal Columns
4.3.1. Functional Components of the Cranial Nerves
4.3.2. Efferent Columns
4.3.3. Afferent Columns
4.4. Internal Features
4.4.1. Endogenous Substances
4.4.2. Medulla Oblongata
4.4.3. Pons
4.4.4. Midbrain
Further Reading
Chapter 5: The Forebrain
5.1. Telencephalon
5.1.1. Telencephalon Medium
5.1.2. Cerebral Hemispheres
5.1.3. Basal Nuclei
5.1.4. Rhinencephalon
5.2. Diencephalon
5.2.1. Epithalamus
5.2.2. Thalamus
5.2.3. Subthalamus
5.2.4. Hypothalamus
5.3. Cerebral White Matter
Further Reading 80
Chapter 6: Introduction to Ascending Sensory Paths
6.1. Receptors
6.2. Classification of Receptors by Modality
6.2.1. Mechanoreceptors
6.2.2. Thermoreceptors
6.2.3. Nociceptors
6.2.4. Chemoreceptors
6.2.5. Photoreceptors
6.2.6. Osmoreceptors
6.3. Sherrington’s Classification of Receptors
6.3.1. Exteroceptors
6.3.2. Interoceptors
6.3.3. Proprioceptors
6.4. Structural Classification of Receptors
6.4.1. Free Nerve Endings
6.4.2. Endings in Hair Follicles
6.4.3. Terminal Endings of Nerves
6.4.4. Neurotendinous Spindles
6.4.5. Neuromuscular Spindles
6.5. Reflex Circuits
6.5.1. The Monosynaptic Reflex
6.5.2. Complex Reflexes
6.6. General Sensory Paths
6.6.1. Classification of Sensory Paths by Function
6.7. Organization of General Sensory Paths
6.7.1. Receptors
6.7.2. Primary Neurons
6.7.3. Secondary Neurons
6.7.4. Thalamic Neurons
6.7.5. Cortical Neurons
6.7.6. Modulation of Sensory Paths
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Paths for Pain and Temperature
7.1. Path for Superficial Pain and Temperature from the Body
7.1.1. Modalities
7.1.2. Receptor
7.1.3. Primary Neurons
7.1.4. Secondary Neurons
7.1.5. Position of the Lateral Spinothalamic Tract in the Brain Stem
7.1.6. Thalamic Neurons
7.1.7. Cortical Neurons
7.1.8. Modulation of Painful and Thermal Impulses
7.2. Path for Visceral Pain from the Body
7.2.1. Modalities and Receptors
7.2.2. Primary Neurons
7.2.3. Secondary Neurons
7.2.4. Thalamic Neurons
7.2.5. Cortical Neurons
7.2.6. Suffering Accompanying Pain
7.2.7. Visceral Pain as Referred Pain
7.2.8. Transection of Fiber Bundles to Relieve Intractable Pain
7.3. The Trigeminal Nuclear Complex
7.3.1. Organization of the Trigeminal Nuclear Complex
7.3.2. Organization of Entering Trigeminal Sensory Fibers
7.4. Path for Superficial Pain and Thermal Extremes from the Head
7.4.1. Modalities and Receptors
7.4.2. Primary Neurons
7.4.3. Secondary Neurons
7.4.4. Thalamic Neurons
7.5. Path for Thermal Discrimination from the Head
7.5.1. Modality and Receptors
7.5.2. Primary Neurons
7.5.3. Secondary Neurons
7.5.4. Thalamic Neurons
7.5.5. Cortical Neurons
7.6. General Somatic Afferent Components of VII, IX and X
7.7. Trigeminal and Other Neuralgias
7.7.1. Causes of Trigeminal Neuralgia 1
7.7.2. Methods of Treatment for Trigeminal Neuralgia
7.8. Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Paths for Touch, Pressure, Proprioception, and Vibration
8.1. Path for General Tactile Sensation from the Body
8.1.1. Modalities and Receptors
8.1.2. Primary Neurons
8.1.3. Secondary Neurons
8.1.4. Thalamic Neurons
8.2. Path for Tactile Discrimination, Pressure, Proprioception, and Vibration from the Body 1
8.2.1. Modalities and Receptors
8.2.2. Primary Neurons
8.2.3. Secondary Neurons
8.2.4. Thalamic Neurons
8.2.5. Cortical Neurons
8.2.6. Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Relief of Pain
8.3. Path for Tactile Discrimination from the Head
8.3.1. Modalities and Receptors
8.3.2. Primary Neurons
8.3.3. Secondary Neurons
8.3.4. Thalamic Neurons
8.3.5. Cortical Neurons
8.4. Path for General Tactile Sensation from the Head
8.4.1. Modalities and Receptors
8.4.2. Primary Neurons
8.4.3. Secondary Neurons and Their Central Processes
8.4.4. Thalamic Neurons
8.5. Path for Proprioception, Pressure, and Vibration from the Head
8.5.1. Modalities and Receptors
8.5.2. Primary Neurons
8.5.3. Secondary Neurons
8.5.4. Thalamic Neurons
8.5.5. Cortical Neurons
8.6. Trigeminal Motor Component
8.7. Certain Trigeminal Reflexes
8.7.1. Mandibular, Masseter, or ‘Jaw-Closing’ Reflex
8.7.2. Corneal Reflex
Further Reading
Chapter 9: The Reticular Formation
9.1. Structural Aspects
9.1.1. Reticular Nuclei in the Medulla
9.1.2. Reticular Nuclei in the Pons
9.1.3. Reticular Nuclei in the Midbrain
9.2. Ascending Reticular System
9.3. Descending Reticular System
9.4. Functional Aspects of the Reticular Formation
9.4.1. Consciousness
9.4.2. Homeostatic Regulation
9.4.3. Visceral Reflexes
9.4.4. Motor Function
Further Reading 1
Chapter 10: The Auditory System
10.1. Gross Anatomy
10.1.1. External Ear
10.1.2. Middle Ear
10.1.3. Internal Ear
10.2. The Ascending Auditory Path
10.2.1. Modality and Receptors
10.2.2. Primary Neurons
10.2.3. Secondary Neurons
10.2.4. Tertiary Neurons
10.2.5. Inferior Collicular Neurons
10.2.6. Thalamic Neurons
10.2.7. Cortical Neurons
10.2.8. Comments
10.3. Descending Auditory Connections
10.3.1. Electrical Stimulation of Cochlear Efferents
10.3.2. Autonomic Fibers to the Cochlea
10.4. Injury to the Auditory Path
10.4.1. Congenital Loss of Hearing
10.4.2. Decoupling of Stereocilia
10.4.3. Tinnitus
10.4.4. Noise-Induced Loss of Hearing
10.4.5. Aging and the Loss of Hearing
10.4.6. Unilateral Loss of Hearing
10.4.7. Injury to the Inferior Colliculi
10.4.8. Unilateral Injury to the Medial Geniculate Body or Auditory Cortex
10.4.9. Bilateral Injury to the Primary Auditory Cortex
10.4.10. Auditory Seizures – Audenes
10.5. Cochlear Implants
10.6. Auditory Brain Stem Implants
Further Reading
Chapter 11: The Vestibular System
11.1 Gross Anatomy
11.1.1. Internal Ear
11.2. The Ascending Vestibular Path
11.2.1. Modalities and Receptors
11.2.2. Primary Neurons
11.2.3. Secondary Neurons
11.2.4. Thalamic Neurons
11.2.5. Cortical Neurons
11.3. Other Vestibular Connections
11.3.1. Primary Vestibulocerebellar Fibers
11.3.2. Vestibular Nuclear Projections to the Cerebellum
11.3.3. Vestibular Nuclear Projections to the Spinal Cord
11.3.4. Vestibular Nuclear Projections to Nuclei of the Extraocular Muscles
11.3.5. Vestibular Nuclear Projections to the Reticular Formation
11.3.6. Vestibular Projections to the Contralateral Vestibular Nuclei
11.4. The Efferent Component of the Vestibular System
11.5. Afferent Projections to the Vestibular Nuclei
11.6. Vertigo
11.6.1. Physiological Vertigo
11.6.2. Pathological Vertigo
Further Reading
Chapter 12: The Visual System
12.1. Retina
12.1.1. Pigment Layer
12.1.2. Neural Layer
12.1.3. Other Retinal Elements
12.1.4. Special Retinal Regions
12.1.5. Retinal Areas
12.1.6. Visual Fields
12.2. Visual Path
12.2.1. Receptors
12.2.2. Primary Retinal Neurons
12.2.3. Secondary Retinal Neurons
12.2.4. Optic Nerve [II]
12.2.5. Optic Chiasma – the Union of Both Intracranial Optic Nerves 208
12.2.6. Optic Tract
12.2.7. Thalamic Neurons
12.2.8. Optic Radiations
12.2.9. Cortical Neurons
12.3. Injuries to the Visual System
12.3.1. Retinal Injuries
12.3.2. Injury to the Optic Nerve
12.3.3. Chiasmal Injuries
12.3.4. Injuries to the Optic Tract
12.3.5. Injury to the Lateral Geniculate Body
12.3.6. Injuries to the Optic Radiations
12.3.7. Injuries to the Visual Cortex
Further Reading
Chapter 13: Ocular Movements and Visual Reflexes
13.1. Ocular Movements
13.1.1. Primary Position of the Eyes
13.2. Conjugate Ocular Movements
13.2.1. Miniature Ocular Movements
13.2.2. Saccades
13.2.3. Smooth Pursuit Movements
13.2.4. Vestibular Movements
13.3. Extraocular Muscles
13.4. Innervation of the Extraocular Muscles
13.4.1. Abducent Nucleus and Nerve
13.4.2. Trochlear Nucleus and Nerve
13.4.3. Oculomotor Nucleus and Nerve
13.5. Anatomical Basis of Conjugate Ocular Movements
13.6. Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
13.7. Vestibular Connections Related to Ocular Movements
13.7.1. Vestibular Connections Related to Horizontal Ocular Movements
13.7.2. Vestibular Nystagmus
13.7.3. Doll’s Ocular Movements
13.7.4. Vestibular Connections Related to Vertical Ocular Movements
13.8. Injury to the Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
13.9. Injury to the Vestibular Nuclei
13.10. The Reticular Formation and Ocular Movements
13.11. Congenital Nystagmus
13.12. Ocular Bobbing
13.13. Examination of the Vestibular System
13.14. Visual Reflexes
13.14.1. The Light Reflex
13.14.2. The Near Reflex
13.14.3. Pupillary Dilatation
13.14.4. The Lateral Tectotegmentospinal Tract
13.14.5. Pupillary Pain Reflex and the Spinotectal Tract
13.14.6. The Afferent Pupillary Defect (Marcus Gunn Pupillary Sign)
Further Reading
Chapter 14: The Thalamus
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Nuclear Groups of the Thalamus
14.2.1. Anterior Nuclei and the Lateral Dorsal Nucleus
14.2.2. Intralaminar Nuclei
14.2.3. Medial Nuclei
14.2.4. Median Nuclei
14.2.5. Metathalamic Body and Nuclei
14.2.6. Posterior Nuclear Complex
14.2.7. Pulvinar Nuclei and Lateral Posterior Nucleus
14.2.8. Reticular Nucleus
14.2.9. Ventral Nuclei
14.3. Injuries to the Thalamus
14.4. Mapping the Human Thalamus
14.5. Stimulation of the Human Thalamus
14.6. The Thalamus as a Neurosurgical Target
Further Reading
Chapter 15: The Motor System: Part 1 – Lower Motoneurons and the Pyramidal System
15.1. Regions Involved in Motor Activity
15.2. Lower Motoneurons
15.2.1. Terms Related to Motor Activity
15.2.2. Lower Motoneurons in the Spinal Cord
15.2.3. Activation of Motoneurons
15.2.4. Lower Motoneurons in the Brain Stem
15.2.5. Injury to Lower Motoneurons
15.2.6. Examples of Lower Motoneuron Disorders
15.3. Pyramidal System
15.3.1. Corticospinal Component
15.3.2. Corticobulbar Component
15.3.3. Clinical Neuroanatomical Correlation
Further Reading
Chapter 16: The Motor System: Part 2 – The Extrapyramidal System and Cerebellum
16.1. Extrapyramidal System
16.1.1. Extrapyramidal Motor Cortex
16.1.2. Basal Nuclei
16.1.3. Afferents to the Basal Nuclei
16.1.4. Cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamocortical Circuits
16.1.5. Multisynaptic Descending Paths
16.1.6. Common Discharge Paths
16.1.7. Somatotopic Organization of the Basal Nuclei
16.2. Cerebellum
16.2.1. External Features of the Cerebellum
16.2.2. Cerebellar Cortex
16.2.3. Deep Cerebellar Nuclei
16.2.4. Cerebellar White Matter
16.3. Input to the Cerebellum through the Peduncles
16.3.1. Inferior Cerebellar Peduncle
16.3.2. Middle Cerebellar Peduncle
16.3.3. Superior Cerebellar Peduncle
6.4. Input to the Cerebellum
16.4.1. Incoming Fibers to the Cerebellum
16.5. Cerebellar Output
16.5.1. Output from the Fastigial Nuclei
16.5.2. Output from the Globose and Emboliform Nuclei
16.5.3. Output from the Dentate Nuclei
16.6. Cerebellar Circuitry
16.7. Common Discharge Paths
16.8. Cerebellar Functions
16.8.1. Motor Functions of the Cerebellum
16.8.2. Nonmotor Functions of the Cerebellum
16.8.3. Studies Involving the Human Cerebellum
16.8.4. Localization in the Cerebellum
16.9. Manifestations of Injuries to the Motor System
16.9.1. Injury to the Premotor Cortex
16.9.2. Injuries to the Basal Nuclei
16.9.3. Injury to the Subthalamic Nucleus
16.9.4. Injury to the Cerebellum
16.9.5. Localization of Cerebellar Damage
16.10. Decorticate Versus Decerebrate Rigidity
16.10.1. Decerebrate Rigidity
16.10.2. Decorticate Rigidity
16.11. Epilogue
Further Reading
Chapter 17: The Olfactory and Gustatory Systems
17.1. The Olfactory System
17.1.1. Receptors
17.1.2. Primary Neurons
17.1.3. Olfactory Fila and the Olfactory Nerve
17.1.4. Olfactory Bulb – Secondary Olfactory Neurons
17.1.5. Olfactory Stalk
17.1.6. Medial Stria
17.1.7. Lateral Stria
17.1.8. Thalamic Neurons
17.1.9. Cortical Neurons
17.1.10. Efferent Olfactory Connections
17.1.11. Injuries to the Olfactory System
17.2. The Gustatory System
17.2.1. Receptors
17.2.2. Primary Neurons
17.2.3. Secondary Neurons
17.2.4. The Ascending Gustatory Path
17.2.5. Thalamic Neurons
17.2.6. Cortical Neurons
17.2.7. Injuries to the Gustatory System
Further Reading
Chapter 18: The Limbic System
18.1. Historical Aspects
18.2. Anatomy of the Limbic System
18.2.1. Olfactory System
18.2.2. Septal Area
18.2.3. Mamillary Bodies of the Hypothalamus
18.2.4. Anterior Nuclei of the Thalamus
18.2.5. The Hippocampal Formation
18.2.6. The Amygdaloid Body
18.2.7. Cingulate Gyrus and Cingulum
18.2.8. Cortical Areas
18.3. Cyclic Paths of the Limbic System
18.4. Synaptic Organization of Human Limbic System
18.5. Descending Limbic Paths
18.6. Functional Aspects of the Human Limbic System
18.6.1. Emotion
18.6.2. Memory
18.7. Limbic System Disorders
18.8. Injuries to Limbic Constituents
18.8.1. Septal Area
18.8.2. Hippocampal Formation
18.8.3. Amygdaloid Body
18.8.4. Seizures Involving the Limbic System
18.9. Psychosurgery of the Limbic System
18.9.1. Drug Resistant Epilepsy
18.9.2. Violent, Aggressive, or Restless Behaviors
18.9.3. Schizophrenia
18.9.4. Intractable Pain
18.9.5. Psychiatric Disorders and Abnormal Behavior
Further Reading
Chapter 19: The Hypothalamus
19.1. Hypothalamic Regions
19.2. Hypothalamic Zones
19.3. Hypothalamic Nuclei
19.3.1. Anterior Hypothalamic Region
19.3.2. Dorsal Hypothalamic Region
19.3.3. Intermediate Hypothalamic Region
19.3.4. Lateral Hypothalamic Area
19.3.5. Posterior Hypothalamic Region
19.3.6. Posterior Nucleus of the Hypothalamus
19.4. Fiber Connections
19.4.1. Medial Forebrain Bundle
19.4.2. Stria Terminalis
19.4.3. Fornix
19.4.4. Diencephalic Periventricular System (DPS)
19.4.5. Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus
19.4.6. Anterior and Posterior Hypothalamotegmental Tracts 3
19.4.7. Pallidohypothalamic Tract
19.4.8. Mamillothalamic Tract
19.4.9. Hypothalamo-hypophyseal Tract
19.4.10. Vascular Connections
19.5. Functions of the Hypothalamus
19.5.1. Water Balance – Water Intake and Loss
19.5.2. Eating – Food Intake
19.5.3. Temperature Regulation
19.5.4. Autonomic Regulation
19.5.5. Emotional Expression
19.5.6. Wakefulness and Sleep (Biological Rhythms)
19.5.7. Control of the Endocrine System
19.5.8. Reproduction
Further Reading
Chapter 20: The Autonomic Nervous System
20.1 Historical Aspects
20.2. Structural Aspects
20.2.1. Location of Autonomic Neurons of Origin
20.2.2. Manner of Distribution of Autonomic Fibers
20.2.3. Termination of Autonomic Fibers
20.3. Comparison of the Somatic Efferents and Visceral Efferents
20.4. General Visceral Afferents
20.5. Regulation of the Autonomic Nervous System
20.6. Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System
Further Reading
Chapter 21: General Features of the Cerebral Hemispheres
21.1. Facts and Figures
21.2. Cortical Neurons
21.3. Cortical Layers
21.4. Cortical Columns (Microarchitecture)
21.5. Functional Aspects of the Cerebral Cortex
21.6. Cerebral Dominance, Lateralization, and Asymmetry
21.7. Frontal Lobe
21.7.1. Primary Motor Cortex
21.7.2. Premotor Cortex
21.7.3. Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)
21.7.4. Cingulate Motor Areas
21.7.5. Frontal Eye Fields
21.7.6. Motor Speech Region
21.7.7. Prefrontal Cortex
21.8. Parietal Lobe
21.8.1. Primary Somatosensory Cortex (SI)
21.8.2. Secondary Somatosensory Cortex
21.8.3. Superior Parietal Lobule
21.8.4. Inferior Parietal Lobule: Language Areas
21.8.5. Primary Vestibular Cortex (2v)
21.8.6. Mirror Representation of Others’ Actions
21.8.7. Preoccipital Areas Involved in Following Ocular Movements
21.9. Occipital Lobe
21.9.1. Primary Visual Cortex (V1)
21.9.2. Secondary Visual Cortex
21.10. Temporal Lobe
21.10.1. Primary Auditory Cortex (AI)
21.10.2. Wernicke’s Region
21.10.3. Temporal Vestibular Cortex
21.10.4. Midtemporal Areas Related to Memory
21.10.5. Anomia
21.10.6. Prosopagnosia
21.10.7. Psychomotor Seizures
21.11. Insular Lobe
21.12. Aphasia
21.12.1. Historic Aspects of Aphasia
21.12.2. Broca’s Aphasia
21.12.3. Wernicke’s Aphasia
21.12.4. Conductive Aphasia
21.12.5. Global Aphasia
21.13. Alexia
21.14. Apraxia
21.15. Gerstmann’s Syndrome
21.16. Agnosia
21.17. Dyslexia
Further Reading
Chapter 22: Blood Supply to the Central Nervous System
22.1. Cerebral Circulation
22.2. Aortic Arch, Brachiocephalic Trunk, and Subclavian Vessels
22.3. Vertebral-Basilar Arterial System
22.3.1. Branches of the Vertebral Arteries
22.4. Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
22.4.1. Extramedullary Vessels
22.4.2. Intramedullary Vessels
22.4.3. Spinal Veins
22.5. Blood Supply to the Brain Stem and Cerebellum
22.5.1. Extrinsic or Superficial Branches
22.5.2. Branches of the Basilar Arteries
22.5.3. Intrinsic or Penetrating Branches
22.5.4. Classical Brain Stem Syndromes
22.6. Common Carotid Artery
22.6.1. External Carotid Artery
22.6.2. Internal Carotid Artery: Cervical, Petrous, and Cavernous Parts
22.7. Blood Supply to the Cerebral Hemispheres
22.7.1. Internal Carotid Artery: Cerebral Part
22.7.2. Branches of the Internal Carotid Artery
22.7.3. Posterior Cerebral Artery and its Cerebral Supply
22.8. Cerebral Arterial Circle
22.8.1. Types of Arteries Supplying the Brain
22.9. Embryological Considerations
22.10. Vascular Injuries
22.10.1. Brain Stem Vascular Injuries
22.10.2. Visualization of Brain Vessels
Further Reading393
Chapter 23: The Meninges, Ventricular System and Cerebrospinal Fluid
23.1. The Cranial Meninges and Related Spaces
23.1.1. Cranial Dura Mater
23.1.2. Cranial Arachnoid
23.1.3. Cranial Pia Mater
23.1.4. Dural Projections
23.1.5. Intracranial Herniations
23.2. Ventricular System
23.2.1. Introduction
23.2.2. Lateral Ventricles
23.2.3. Third Ventricle
23.2.4. Aqueduct of Midbrain
23.2.5. Fourth Ventricle
23.3. Cerebrospinal Fluid
Further Reading
References
Index