Bioenergy

Yebo Li is an Assitant Professor in the Department of Food, Agricultural, and Biological Engineering and Director of the Bioproducts and Bioengineering Laboratory at the Ohio State University. Samir Kumar Khanal, PhD, P.E. is an Associate Professor of Bioengineering in the Bioenergy Research Group?in the Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering at the University of Hawaii-Manoa.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE

SECTION I BIOENERGY FUNDAMENTALS

1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li

1.1 Energy

1.2 Non-renewable Energy

1.3 Renewable Energy

1.4 Why Renewable Energy?

1.4.1 Energy Insecurity

1.4.2 Depletion of Energy Resources Reserves

1.4.3 Concern about Climate Change

1.5 Bioenerg

1.5.1 Current Status of Bioenergy Production

1.5.2 Merits of Bioenergy

1.5.3 Demerits of Bioenergy

References

Exercise Problems

2 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
Samir Kumar Khanal

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Units of Measurement

2.3 Useful Units and Conversions

2.4 Energy and Heat

2.4.1 Power

2.4.2 Heating Value

2.4.3 Heat Capacity

2.5 Volume–Mass Relationship

2.6 Ideal Gas Law

2.7 Henry’s Law

References and Further Reading

Exercise Problems

3 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES
Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Mass Balances

3.3 Enthalpy

3.4 Energy Balances

References and Further Reading

Exercise Problems

4 THERMODYNAMICS AND KINETICS OF BASIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Devin Takara and Samir Kumar Khanal

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Reaction Thermodynamics

4.3 Reaction Kinetics

References and Further Reading

Exercise Problems

5 ORGANIC AND CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY
Xiaolan Luo and Yebo Li

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Structural Formulas and Classification of Organic Compounds

5.3 Aliphatic Compounds

5.3.1 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

5.3.2 Alkenes and Alkynes

5.3.3 Alcohols and Ethers

5.3.4 Aldehydes and Ketones

5.3.5 Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives

5.3.6 Other Aliphatic Compounds

5.4 Aromatic Compounds

5.5 Heterocyclic Compounds

5.6 Carbohydrates

5.6.1 Monosaccharides

5.6.2 Oligosaccharides

5.6.3 Polysaccharides

5.7 Proteins and Lipids

5.7.1 Proteins

5.7.2 Lipids

References and Further Reading

Exercise Problem

6 PLANT STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY
Samir Kumar Khanal, Saoharit Nitayavardhana, and Rakshit Devappa

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Carbohydrates and Their Classification

6.2.1 Monosaccharides

6.2.2 Oligosaccharides

6.2.3 Polysaccharides

6.3 Main Constituents of Plant Biomass

6.3.1 Structural Carbohydrates

6.3.2 Lignin

6.4 Plant Cell Wall Architecture

6.4.1 Primary Cell Wall

6.4.2 Secondary Cell Wall

References

Exercise Problems

7 MICROBIAL METABOLISMS
Arul M. Varman, Lian He, and Yinjie J. Tang

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Carbon Metabolisms

7.3 Metabolic Models

7.3.1 Microbial Growth in Batch Culture

7.3.2 Monod Equation for Microbial Growth

7.3.3 Inhibition and Multiple Substrate Models

7.3.4 Monod-Based Kinetic Model in Batch Bioreactors

7.3.5 Monod Model Coupled with Mass Transfer

7.3.6 Mass Balances and Reactions in Fed-Batch and Continuous-Stirred Tank Bioreactors

7.3.7 Elemental Balance and Stoichiometric Models

References

Exercise Problems

Appendix 7.1 Code Useful for Example 7.2

SECTION II BIOENERGY FEEDSTOCKS

8 STARCH-BASED FEEDSTOCKS
Xumeng Ge and Yebo Li

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Corn

8.2.1 Growth and Development of Corn

8.2.2 Growing Degree Days for Corn Growth

8.2.3 Cultivation Practices in Corn Production

8.2.4 Harvesting and Storage of Corn

8.3 Sweet Potato

8.3.1 Growth and Development of Sweet Potato

8.3.2 Cultivation Practices in Sweet Potato Production

8.3.3 Harvesting and Storage of Sweet Potato

8.4 Cassava

8.4.1 Growth and Development of Cassava

8.4.2 Cultivation Practices in Cassava Production

8.4.3 Harvesting and Storage of Cassava

8.5 Comparison of Composition, Yield, and Energy Potential of Corn, Sweet Potato, and Cassava

References

Exercise Problems

9 OILSEED-BASED FEEDSTOCKS
Chengci Chen and Marisol Berti

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Soybean

9.2.1 Feedstock Production and Handling

9.2.2 Nutrient and Water Use

9.3 Rapeseed and Canola

9.3.1 Feedstock Production and Handling

9.3.2 Nutrient and Wate

9.5.1 Feedstock Production and Handling

9.5.2 Nutrient and Water Use

9.6 Camelina

9.6.1 Feedstock Production and Handling

9.6.2 Nutrient and Water Use

9.7 Yield and Oil Content of Major Oilseed Feedstocks

References

Exercise Problems

10 LIGNOCELLULOSE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS
Sudhagar Mani

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Feedstock Availability and Production

10.2.1 Crop Residues

10.2.2 Dedicated Energy Crops

10.2.3 Forest Biomass

10.3 Feedstock Logistics

10.3.1 Harvesting and Collection of Crop Residues and Energy Crops

10.3.2 Harvesting of Forest Biomass

10.3.3 Transportation

10.3.4 Storage

References

Exercise Problems

11 ALGAE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS
Xumeng Ge, Johnathon P. Sheets, Yebo Li, and Sudhagar Mani

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Algae Classification, Cell Structure, and Characteristics

11.3 Mechanism of Algal Growth

11.4 Algal Growth Conditions

11.4.1 Light

11.4.2 CO2 Concentration

11.4.3 Temperature, pH, and Salinity

11.4.4 Nutrients

11.5 Steps in Algal-Biodiesel Production

11.5.1 Algal Cultivation

11.5.2 Harvesting

11.5.3 Drying

11.5.4 Lipid Extraction

References

Exercise Problems

SECTION III BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

12 PRETREATMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCKS
Chang Geun Yoo and Xuejun Pan

12.1 Introduction

12.2 What Does Pretreatment Do?

12.3 Physical Pretreatment

12.4 Thermochemical Pretreatment

12.4.1 Acid Pretreatment

12.4.2 Alkaline Pretreatment

12.4.3 Organosolv Pretreatment

12.4.4 Sulfite-Based Pretreatment

12.4.5 The Combined Severity (CS) Factor

12.5 Other Pretreatments

12.5.1 Cellulose Solvent-Based Pretreatment

12.5.2 Biological Pretreatment

12.5.3 Ultrasonic Pretreatment

12.5.4 Microwave Pretreatment

12.6 Co-products from Lignocellulosic Feedstock Pretreatment

12.6.1 Hemicellulosic Sugars

12.6.2 Furans (Furfural and HMF)

12.6.3 Lignin

References

Exercise Problems

13 ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS
David Hodge and Wei Liao

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Nomenclature and Classification of Hydrolases

13.3 Enzyme Kinetics

13.3.1 Fundamentals of Reaction Rate: Transition State Theory

13.3.2 Reaction Rate and Reaction Orders

13.3.3 Michaelis–Menten Kinetics

13.3.4 Enzyme Inhibition

13.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates

13.4.1 Carbohydrate Structure

13.4.2 Starch Depolymerization

13.4.3 Cellulose Hydrolysis

13.4.4 Hemicellulose Hydrolysis

13.4.5 Key Factors Affecting the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks

References

Exercise Problems

14 ETHANOL FERMENTATION
Saoharit Nitayavardhana and Samir Kumar Khanal

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Biochemical Pathway

14.2.1 Hexose Fermentation

14.2.2 Pentose Fermentation

14.3 Byproducts Formation during Ethanol Fermentation

14.4 Microbial Cultures

14.4.1 Yeast Culture for Hexose Fermentation

14.4.2 Microbial Culture for Pentose Fermentation

14.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Ethanol Fermentation

14.5.1 Nutrients

14.5.2 pH

14.5.3 Temperature

14.5.4 Others

14.6 Industrial Fuel-Grade Ethanol Production

14.6.1 Seed Culture Preparation

14.6.2 Industrial Ethanol Fermentation

14.6.3 Ethanol Recovery

References

Exercise Problems

15 BUTANOL FERMENTATION
Victor Ujor and Thaddeus Chukwuemeka Ezeji

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Butanol Fermentation

15.2.1 Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol (ABE) Fermentation

15.2.2 Biochemical Pathway

15.2.3 Stoichiometry and Product Yield

15.2.4 Microbiology

15.3 Factors Affecting Butanol Fermentation

15.3.1 pH

15.3.2 Availability of Co-factors (NADH)

15.3.3 Medium Composition

15.3.4 Product Inhibition

15.4 Substrates for Butanol Fermentation

15.5 Advanced Butanol Fermentation Techniques and Downstream Processing

15.5.1 Gas Stripping

15.5.2 Vacuum Fermentation

15.5.3 Liquid–Liquid Extraction

15.5.4 Pervaporation

References

Exercise Problems

16 SYNGAS FERMENTATION
Mark R. Wilkins, Hasan K. Atiyeh, and Samir Kumar Khanal

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Stoichiometry

16.3 Syngas-Fermenting Bacteria

16.3.1 Biochemical Pathway

16.3.2 Genetic Transformation of Syngas-Fermenting Bacteria

16.3.3 Microbial Kinetics

16.4 Factors Affecting Syngas Fermentation

16.4.1 Medium Composition

16.4.2 pH

16.4.3 Temperature

16.4.4 Mass Transfer

16.4.5 Bioreactor Configurations

16.5 Product Recovery

References

Exercise Problems

17 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Organic Conversion in an Anaerobic Process

17.3 Stoichiometry of Methane Production

17.4 Important Considerations in Anaerobic Digestion

17.4.1 Temperature

17.4.2 pH and Alkalinity

17.4.3 Nutrients

17.4.4 Toxic Materials and Inhibition

17.4.5 Total Solids Content

17.4.6 Volumetric Organic Loading Rate (VOLR)

17.4.7 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Solids Retention Time (SRT)

17.4.8 Start-up

17.5 Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1)

References

Exercise Problems

18 BIOGAS PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS, 338
Samir Kumar Khanal and Yebo Li

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Anaerobic Digestion Systems

18.2.1 Suspended Growth System

18.2.2 Attached Growth System

18.2.3 Solid-State Anaerobic Digestion System

18.2.4 Household Digester

18.3 Biogas Cleaning and Upgrading

18.3.1 Physical Methods

18.3.2 Chemical Methods

18.3.3 Biological Methods

18.4 Biogas Utilization

18.5 Digestate

References

Exercise Problems

19 MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS
Hongjian Lin, Hong Liu, Jun Zhu, and Venkataramana Gadhamshetty

19.1 Introduction

19.2 How Does a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Work?

19.3 Electron Transfer Processes

19.3.1 Mediated Electron Transfer

19.3.2 Direct Electron Transfer (DET)

19.3.3 Bacterial Nanowires

19.3.4 Long-Range Extracellular Electron Transfer

19.4 Electrical Power and Energy Generation

19.4.1 Redox Reaction and Electrode Potential

19.4.2 Electromotive Force and Cell Potential

19.4.3 Electrical Power

19.4.4 Coulombic and Energy Efficiency

19.5 Design and Operation of an MFC

19.5.1 MFC Configurations

19.5.2 Separators

19.5.3 Anode Materials and Catalysts

19.5.4 Cathode Materials and Catalysts

19.5.5 Substrates

References

Exercise Problems

SECTION IV THERMAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

20 COMBUSTION FOR HEAT AND POWER
Sushil Adhikari, Avanti Kulkarni, and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Fundamentals of Biomass Combustion

20.2.1 Biomass Combustion Phases

20.2.2 Biomass Combustion Reaction and Stoichiometry

20.3 Biomass Properties and Preprocessing

20.3.1 Biomass Properties

20.3.2 Biomass Preprocessing

20.4 Biomass Furnaces

20.4.1 Fixed-Bed Furnaces

20.4.2 Fluidized-Bed Furnaces

20.5 Power Generation

20.5.1 Carnot Cycle

20.5.2 Rankine Cycle

20.5.3 The Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

20.5.4 Combined Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine Power Cycles

20.6 Biomass Co-firing with Coal

20.7 Environmental Impact and Emissions of Biomass Combustion

References

Exercise Problems

21 GASIFICATION
Sushil Adhikari and Nourredine Abdoulmoumine

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Fundamentals of Gasification

21.2.1 Gasifying Agents

21.2.2 Gasification Reactions

21.3 Gasifiers

21.3.1 Moving-Bed Gasifiers

21.3.2 Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers

21.3.3 Entrained-Flow Gasifiers

21.4 Feedstock Preparation and Characterization

21.4.1 Feedstock Preparation

21.4.2 Feedstock Characterization

21.5 Gasification Mass and Energy Balance

21.5.1 Mass Balance

21.5.2 Energy Balance

21.6 Gas Cleanup

21.7 Applications of Biomass Gasification

References

Exercise Problems

Appendix

22 PYROLYSIS
Manuel Garcia-Perez

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Slow vs. Fast Pyrolysis

22.2.1 Slow Pyrolysis

22.2.2 Fast Pyrolysis

22.3 Pyrolysis Reactions and Mechanisms

22.3.1 Pyrolysis Reactions

22.3.2 Reaction Mechanisms

22.4 Single-Particle Models

22.5 Bio-Oil

22.6 Charcoal

22.7 Bio-oil Refining

References

Exercise Problems

SECTION V BIOBASED REFINERY

23 SUGAR-BASED BIOREFINERY
Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Stoichiometry

23.3 Sugarcane Ethanol

23.3.1 Ethanol Production Process

23.3.2 Sugarcane-to-Ethanol Biorefinery

23.4 Sweet Sorghum Ethanol

23.5 Sugar Beet Ethanol

23.6 Biochemicals and Biopolymers

23.6.1 Lactic Acid

23.6.2 Succinic Acid

23.6.3 1,3-Propanediol

23.6.4 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid

References

Exercise Problems

24 STARCH-BASED BIOREFINERY
Samir Kumar Khanal and Saoharit Nitayavardhana

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Stoichiometry of Starch to Ethanol

24.2.1 Corn-Based Ethanol Biorefinery

24.2.2 Corn-to-Ethanol Plants and Sorghum-to-Ethanol Plants

24.2.3 Cassava-Based Ethanol Biorefinery

24.3 Integrated Farm-Scale Biorefinery

References

Exercise Problems

25 LIGNOCELLULOSE-BASED BIOREFINERY
Scott C. Geleynse, Michael Paice, and Xiao Zhang

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Cell Structure of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks

25.3 Stoichiometry and Energy Content

25.3.1 Stoichiometry

25.3.2 Energy Content

25.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion to Fuel

25.5 Co-Products from Lignocellulose-Based Biorefinery

25.5.1 Products from Lignin

25.5.2 Products from Hemicellulose

25.6 Industrial Lignocellulose-Based Biorefinery

References

Exercise Problems

26 LIPID-BASED BIOREFINERY
B. Brian He, J. H. Van Gerpen, Matthew J. Morra, and Armando G. McDonald

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Lipid-Based Feedstocks

26.2.1 Plant Oils

26.2.2 Animal Fats

26.2.3 Waste Cooking Oils

26.3 Chemical Properties of Lipids

26.3.1 Chemical Composition of Lipids

26.3.2 Average Molecular Weight of Triglycerides

26.3.3 Seed Oil Extraction

26.4 Biodiesel from Lipids

26.4.1 Biodiesel Production via Transesterification

26.4.2 Parameters Affecting Biodiesel Production

26.4.3 Quality of Biodiesel

26.5 Lipid-Based Biorefinery

26.5.1 High-Value Biobased Products from Seed Oils

26.5.2 Seed Meals and Their Applications

26.5.3 Utilization of Glycerol from Biodiesel Production

References

Exercise Problems

SECTION VI BIOENERGY SYSTEM ANALYSIS

27 TECHNO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
Ganti S. Murthy

27.1 Introduction

27.2 What Is Techno-Economic Analysis?

27.3 Basic Steps in TEA

27.4 Tools, Software, and Data Sources for Performing TEA

27.4.1 Tools Available for Performing TEA

27.4.2 Procedure for TEA Using Commercial Software

27.4.3 Data Sources for Performing TEA

27.4.4 Process Optimization Using TEA

References

Exercise Problems

28 LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Ganti S. Murthy

28.1 Introduction

28.2 What Is Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)?

28.3 Procedure for LCA

28.3.1 Goal Definition and Scoping

28.3.2 Life-Cycle Inventory

28.3.3 Life-Cycle Impact Assessment

28.3.4 Life-Cycle Interpretation

28.4 Tools Available to Perform LCA

28.5 Advanced Topics

28.5.1 Sensitivity Analysis

28.5.2 Process Optimization Using LCA

28.5.3 Consequential LCA

References

Exercise Problems

29 GOVERNMENT POLICY AND STANDARDS FOR BIOENERGY,
Sami Kumar Khanal, Gal Hochman, Ajay Shah, and Jeffrey M. Bielicki

29.1 Overview of the Bioenergy Market

29.2 Rationale for Government Intervention

29.3 Government Intervention through Policy Tools

29.4 Biofuels Policy Implementations: Existing Policy Instruments

29.4.1 Tax Credit/Subsidy

29.4.2 Carbon Tax

29.4.3 Feed-In Tariff

29.4.4 Biofuels Regulations and Standards

29.4.5 Emissions Trading or “Cap-and-Trade”

29.4.6 Flex-Fuel Vehicles

29.4.7 Farm Policies

29.4.8 Trade Policies

29.4.9 Funding for Research and Development

29.5 Implications of Biofuels Policies

References

Exercise Problems

INDEX