Dryland East Asia: Land Dynamics amid Social and Climate Change (eBook)

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Jiquan Chen, University of Toledo, OH, USA; Shiqiang Wan, Henan University, China; Geoffrey Henebry, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA; Jiaguo Qi, Michigan State University, Ann Arbor, USA; Garik Gutman, Land Cover Land Use Change Program, NASA, Washington DC, USA; Ge Sun, Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, USA; Martin Kappas, Georg August University, Göttingen, Germany.

Part I. State and Changes in Dryland East Asia 27
1 State and Change of Dryland East Asia (DEA) 29
1.1 Geography, Demography and Economics in DEA 29
1.2 Climate and Land-Use Changes 36
1.3 Ecosystem Production and Evapotranspiration 40
1.4 Scientific and Societal Challenges for Adaptations in DEA 42
References 46
2 Dryland East Asia in Hemispheric Context 49
2.1 Study Regions 49
2.2 Change Analysis of Vegetated Land Surface 51
2.3 Retrospective Trend Analysis Reveals Areas of Significant Change 52
2.4 Vegetation Change in Three Epochs 53
2.5 Land Cover Variation and Change 56
2.6 Precipitation Variation and Change 60
2.7 Conclusion 64
References 65
3 NEESPI and MAIRS Programs in Dryland East Asia 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Contrast and Comparison 73
3.2.1 The Programs 73
3.2.2 Research Approaches 74
3.2.3 Organization Structure 75
3.2.4 Major Research Activities 75
3.3 Major Findings and Achievements 76
3.3.1 Understanding Climate Change 76
3.3.2 Understanding Societal Consequences 77
3.3.3 Understanding Ecosystem Impacts 79
3.3.4 Institutional Responses to Environmental Change 80
3.3.5 Understanding Challenges 80
3.4 Conclusions 82
References 83
4 Land Use and Land Cover Change in Dryland East Asia 87
4.1 Introduction 88
4.2 Global Land Use Changes through Centuries 91
4.3 Long-Term Changes in Cropland and Pastureland in DEA 92
4.4 Recent Changes in Asian Drylands 94
4.4.1 Rangeland Degradation and Desertification and Increased Cropland 94
4.4.2 Grassland Recovery 98
4.4.3 Reforestation/Afforestation 98
4.5 Sahel Land Use Change 100
References 104
5 Urban Expansion and Environment Change in Dryland East Asia 107
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Study Area, Data, and Methodology 109
5.2.1 Study Area 109
5.2.2 Data and Methodology 111
5.3 Findings 112
5.3.1 Urban Expansion 113
5.3.2 Environment Impact 116
5.4 Case of ¨Ur¨umqi 118
5.4.1 Spatio-Temporal Change in Ürümqi 118
5.4.2 Environment Challenges of Ürümqi 120
5.5 Discussion 122
5.5.1 Characteristics of Urbanization in Arid Regions 122
5.5.2 Socio-Economic Factors Driving Urbanization 123
5.6 Conclusions 125
References 126
6 Ecosystem Carbon Cycle under Changing Atmosphere, Climate and Land Use in Dryland East Asia 131
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Simulated Ecosystem Carbon Patterns in DEA 132
6.3 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Atmospheric Change 136
6.3.1 CO2 Enrichment 136
6.3.2 Nitrogen Deposition and Its Impact on DEA Ecosystems 137
6.4 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Climate Change 138
6.4.1 Responses to Precipitation Changes 138
6.4.2 Responses to Temperature Changes 139
6.5 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Land Use and Land Cover Changes 140
6.6 Interactions among Environmental Changes 141
6.6.1 Limitation of Nitrogen Availability on CO2 Impacts 141
6.6.2 Dependence of Nitrogen Effects on Water Status (Precipitation Regimes) 142
6.6.3 Interaction between Temperature (Warming) and Water Availability (Precipitation) 142
6.6.4 Relationship and Interactions between Land Use and Climate Changes on Ecosystem Carbon Cycling 143
6.7 Carbon Sequestration Potential and Human Adaption to Climate Change 144
References 144
7 Dynamics of Vegetation Productivity in Dryland East Asia from 1982 to 2010 151
7.1 Introduction 151
7.2 Data and Methods 153
7.2.1 AVHRR NDVI 153
7.2.2 MODIS NDVI 154
7.2.3 Land Cover Map 155
7.2.4 MERRA Reanalysis Data 155
7.2.5 Agricultural Statistics 155
7.2.6 Statistical Analysis 157
7.3 Results and Discussion 157
7.3.1 Trends of Spatially-Averaged NDVI 157
7.3.2 Spatial Patterns of NDVI Trends 161
7.3.3 Climatic Drivers 163
7.3.4 Other Drivers 165
7.4 Conclusions 168
References 169
Summary I : Contexts of Change 175
Part II. Consequences 177
8 Impacts of Global Change on Water Resources in Dryland East Asia 179
8.1 Introduction 180
8.2 Key Water Resource Challenges 183
8.2.1 Distribution ofWater Balances across DEA and Historical Changes 183
8.2.2 Land Use/Land Cover Change 186
8.2.3 Agricultural Irrigation and Industrialization 189
8.2.4 Climate Change 191
8.3 Water Resources under Environmental Changes: Case Studies 193
8.3.1 Loess Plateau 193
8.3.2 Impacts of Future Climate Change on Runoff across DEA 197
8.4 Conclusions 200
References 201
9 Examining Changes in Land Cover and Land Use, Regional Climate and Dust in Dryland East Asia and Their Linkages within the Earth System 209
9.1 Introduction 210
9.2 Assessment of Decadal Dust Emission Based on Historical LCLU, Regional Climate and the Regional Coupled Dust Modeling System WRF-Chem-DuMo 211
9.3 Observation-based Dust Climatology and Its Relationship to LCLU and Regional Climate 220
9.4 A Satellite Perspective on the Last Decade 225
9.5 Impacts of Dust on Human-Environment-Climate Systems 229
References 232
10 Biophysical Regulations of Grassland Ecosystem Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA 239
10.1 Brief Introduction of Abiotic and Biotic Factors in Relation to Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA 239
10.2 Biophysical Regulations of Carbon Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands 246
10.2.1 Responses of Daytime Net Ecosystem Exchange to Biotic/Abiotic Factors 246
10.2.2 Response of Nighttime NEE (Re) to T and SWC 250
10.3 Ecosystem Carbon Fluxes between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland 253
10.3.1 Responses of Daytime NEE to Biotic/Abiotic Factors 253
10.3.2 Response of Nighttime NEE (Re) to T and SWC 256
10.4 Biophysical Regulations of Water and Energy Fluxes 258
10.4.1 Energy Partitioning and Its Response to Abiotic/Biotic Factors 258
10.4.2 EcosystemWater and Energy Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands and between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland 259
References 266
11 Afforestation and Forests at the Dryland Edges: Lessons Learned and Future Outlooks 271
11.1 Introduction 271
11.2 Vegetation Zonation and Climate 272
11.3 Climate Forcing Effect of Forests: Ambiguous Conditions at the Dryland Edges 273
11.3.1 Low Elevation Xeric Limits: Vulnerable Forest-Grassland Transition 276
11.3.2 Management of Forests—Plantations vs. Close to Nature Ecosystems 277
11.4 Effects of Forest Management on Forest Hydrological Balances in Dry Regions: A Comparison of China and the United States 278
11.4.1 China 279
11.4.2 United States 280
11.5 Past and Future of Forest Policy in Dryland Regions of China 281
11.5.1 Causes and Consequences of Expanding Desertification 281
11.5.2 Shelterbelt Development and Sand Control Programs in China 281
11.5.3 Debates and Critics about the Achievements of the Past Programs 282
11.5.4 Lessons Learned from Past 284
11.6 Conclusions 284
References 285
12 Human Impact and Land Degradation in Mongolia 291
12.1 Introduction 292
12.2 Land Degradation Overview 292
12.2.1 Mining Land Degradation 293
12.2.2 Land Degradation by Road 295
12.2.3 Pastureland Degradation and Desertification 296
12.2.4 Soil Erosion of Arable Land 298
12.2.5 Deforestation 299
12.2.6 Soil Pollution 300
12.3 Use of Fallout Radionuclide Methods for Soil Erosion Study 300
12.4 Conclusions 304
References 305
13 The Effect of Large-Scale Conservation Programs on the Vegetative Development of China’s Loess Plateau 309
13.1 Introduction 310
13.2 Conservation Programs 311
13.3 Study Region 312
13.3.1 Loess Plateau 312
13.3.2 Subset for Fine Scale Analysis 313
13.4 Data 314
13.4.1 MODIS Data 314
13.4.2 Landsat Data 315
13.4.3 Grazing Statistics 316
13.4.4 Anthromes 316
13.5 Methods 319
13.6 Results and Discussion 319
13.6.1 Vegetation Index and Albedo Changes 319
13.6.2 500 m NDVI Changes 322
13.6.3 Grazing Intensity Change 324
13.7 Conclusions 328
References 329
Summary II : Consequences 333
Part III. Solutions/Adaptations 335
14 Monitoring and Assessment of Dryland Ecosystems with Remote Sensing 337
14.1 Problems of Land Degradation and Desertification in Drylands: Current Challenges and Perspectives 338
14.2 Indicators of Land Degradation/Desertification and Their Detection by Remote Sensing 344
14.2.1 History of Degradation/Desertification Indicator Development in Recent Decades 344
14.2.2 Retrieving Biophysical Spectral Information with Remote Sensing for DLDD 348
14.2.3 Bio-physiological Indexes for Assessment and Monitoring 355
14.3 Review of Available Sensors and Data over DEA and Their Suitability for Detecting Desertification Indicators 358
14.3.1 Short Outlook on Future Satellite Sensors over DEA 361
14.4 Remote Sensing Approach for Desertification Assessment in Central Asia: History, Current Research, and Perspectives—A Case Study 363
14.5 Conclusions 368
References 369
15 The Effects of Spatial Resolution on Vegetation Area Estimates in the Lower Tarim River Basin, Northwestern China 377
15.1 Introduction 377
15.2 Study Area 379
15.3 Methodology 380
15.4 Results and Discussion 382
15.5 Conclusions 386
References 387
16 New Ecology Education: Preparing Students for the Complex Human- Environmental Problems of Dryland East Asia 389
16.1 Introduction 390
16.2 Description of New Ecology Education 391
16.2.1 Topic 1: What’s Going On? (Conceptual Models) 395
16.2.2 Topic 2: Life Is So Confusing! (Nonlinearity) 396
16.2.3 Topic 3: Everything Is Connected to Everything Else (Systems Thinking) 400
16.2.4 Topic 4: Climbing Up-and-Down the Complexity Ladder (Hierarchy Theory) 402
16.2.5 Topic 5: What Does It Take to Change This System? (Resilience) 404
16.2.6 Topic 6: Coping with Land Degradation in Drylands (Ecosystem Services) 408
16.2.7 Topic 7: Unraveling the Complexity of Coupled H-E Systems and Desertification (The Drylands Development Paradigm) 412
16.2.8 Topic 8: Where Art, Science, and Craft Meet (Ostrom’s Framework) 418
16.3 Conclusions 420
References 422
17 Grassland Degradation and Restoration in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China from the 1950s to 2000s: Population, Policies and Profits 431
17.1 Introduction 431
17.2 Population and Urbanization in IM 433
17.2.1 Population Evolution 434
17.2.2 Population and Over-Grazing 435
17.2.3 Urbanization and Restoration 436
17.3 Policy, Laws and Regulation for Grassland 438
17.4 From Production to Profits 440
17.4.1 Animal Husbandry 440
17.4.2 Tourism Development 442
17.4.3 Environmental Service 444
17.5 Conclusions 444
References 446
18 Sustainable Governance of the Mongolian Grasslands: Comparing Ecological and Social-Institutional Changes in the Context of Climate Change in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China 451
18.1 Introduction 452
18.2 Explanatory Models of Grassland Dynamics 453
18.3 Analyses and Results 455
18.3.1 Collectivization of Pastures and Livestock 457
18.3.2 Privatization and Market Incentives 460
18.3.3 Recentralization of Grassland Management in IM, China 462
18.3.4 Changing Roles of the State, Market and Community for Grassland Management 463
18.3.5 Climate Variability and Change: History and Future 464
18.4 Discussion 465
18.5 Conclusions 468
References 469
19 Adaptive Management of Grazing Lands 473
19.1 Introduction 473
19.2 Distribution of Grazing Lands and Problems 476
19.3 Case Study and Adaptive Management in IM 477
19.3.1 Study Site 477
19.3.2 The ACIAR-Model 478
19.3.3 Typical Farm 479
19.3.4 Economic Stocking Rate 479
19.3.5 Improved Feeding of Livestock during Winter and Spring 480
19.3.6 Changing Lambing Time 482
19.3.7 Use of Warm Sheds during Cold Seasons 484
19.4 Conclusions and Discussion 486
References 489
Summary III: Solutions and Adaptations 491
Index 493