Biochemistry of Scandium and Yttrium, Part 2: Biochemistry and Applications

7. Interactions of Scandium and Yttrium within Cells, Cellular Organelles, and Tissues.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Membrane Interactions.- 7.3 Interactions with Cells and Cellular Organelles.- 7.4 Interactions with Antibodies.- 7.5 Interactions with Tissues and Organs.- 7.6 Summary.- References.- 8. Biochemistry and Physiology of Scandium and Yttrium.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Cytological and Morphological Patterns.- 8.3 Biochemistry in Lower Organisms (Monera, Protoctista, Fungi).- 8.4 Biochemistry in Plants.- 8.5 Biochemistry in Lower Animals (Mollusca, Arthropoda).- 8.6 Biochemistry in Fish and Birds.- 8.7 Biochemistry in Mammals.- 8.8 Biochemistry in Humans.- 8.9 Nutrition and Diet.- 8.10 Involvement in Enzymes and in Main and Secondary Metabolism.- 8.11 Membranes and Transport.- 8.12 Involvement in Physiological Processes.- 8.13 Patterns in Disease and Pathological Conditions.- 8.14 Effects on Genetic and Immunologic Processes.- 8.15 Comparison to Lanthanides, Aluminum, and Other Trace Elements.- 8.16 Essentiality, Hormesis, and Other Theoretical and Practical Approaches.- 8.17 Summary.- References.- 9 Toxicology, Carcinogenicity, and Pharmacology of Scandium and Yttrium.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Toxic Effects on Microorganisms.- 9.3 Toxic Effects on Plants.- 9.4 Toxic Effects on Animals.- 9.5 Acute Toxicity.- 9.6 Chronic Toxicity.- 9.7 Toxic Ocular and Skin Effects.- 9.8 Toxic Effects on Heart, Liver, Lung, and Other Organs.- 9.9 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Toxicity.- 9.10 Pathologic Effects.- 9.11 Genetic Effects.- 9.12 Immunologic Effects.- 9.13 Pharmacological Effects.- 9.14 Toxic Effects on Humans.- 9.15 Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity.- 9.16 Radiotoxicity.- 9.17 Hazard, Occupational, and Environmental Impacts.- 9.18 Summary.- References.- 10 Biochemical and Other Techniques that Employ Yttrium and Scandium. Outlook.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Stable and Radioactive Isotopes as Markers in Nutrition Research.- 10.3 Mimicking Action of Calcium Cellular Fluxes and Metabolism.- 10.4 Blood Flow and Microsphere Therapy.- 10.5 Radiolabeling of Antibodies and Other Compounds.- 10.6 Other Biochemical and Medical Applications.- 10.7 Biological, Agricultural, and Environmental Applications.- 10.8 Applications in Industry and Technology.- 10.9 Outlook.- References.- Suggested Further Reading.