Thermoplastic and Rubber Compounds (eBook)

Preface 8
Contents 10
1 Overview and Compound Ingredients 16
1.1 Introduction 16
1.2 Philosophy of Polymer Compounds 16
1.3 Polymers [8, 9] 19
1.4 Particle Fillers and Reinforcements 38
1.4.1 General 38
1.4.2 Carbon Black [26, 53, 54] 39
1.4.3 Calcium Carbonate 42
1.4.4 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 44
1.4.5 Titanium Dioxide [26, 66, 67] 46
1.4.6 Silica [54, 55, 57, 68 to 72] 46
1.4.7 Talc andMica [55, 57] 51
1.4.8 Kaolin Clays [55, 57, 91 to 93] (see Section 1.4.12.1) 54
1.4.9 Fibrous Silicates and Wollastonite [96, 97] 56
1.4.10 Glass Fibers [55, 97 to 103] 58
1.4.11 Glass Spheres 58
1.4.12 Organic Fillers 59
1.4.12.1 Cellulose and Cellulose Fibers [55, 107] 60
1.4.12.2 Starch [107] 66
1.4.12.3 Aramid Fibers 67
1.4.12.4 Carbon Fibers [131] 68
1.4.13 Nanofillers 68
1.4.13.1 Montmorillonite 68
1.4.13.2 Carbon Nanotubes 69
1.5 Oils and Plasticizers [3, 150] 70
1.6 Antidegradents [3, 26, 150, 156] 71
1.7 Processing Aids [7, 26] 72
1.8 Curatives [3, 26, 181] 75
1.9 Accelerators [3, 26, 181] 77
2 Polymer-Particle Filler Systems 88
2.1 Introduction 88
2.2 Particle Properties and Interaction 88
2.2.1 Particle Density 88
2.2.2 Particle Size 90
2.2.3 Particle Shape 92
2.3 Hydrodynamic Theory of Suspensions 93
2.3.1 General 93
2.3.2 Spheres 94
2.3.3 Ellipsoids 95
2.3.4 Interacting Particles 96
2.3.5 Continuum Theories 96
2.4 Experimental Studies of Compound Properties 97
2.4.1 Large Spheres 97
2.4.2 Large Fibers and Ellipsoids 98
2.4.2.1 Fluids 98
2.4.2.2 Solids 100
2.4.3 Carbon Black 104
2.4.3.1 Thermoplastic Melts/Uncured Compounds 104
2.4.3.2 Rubber Vulcanizates 106
2.4.4 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) 108
2.4.4.1 Thermoplastic Melts 108
2.4.4.2 Solid Thermoplastics 110
2.4.5 Silica 111
2.4.5.1 Uncured Rubber Compounds 111
2.4.5.2 Rubber Vulcanizates 111
2.4.6 Talc andMica 111
2.4.6.1 Thermoplastic Melts 111
2.4.6.2 Solid Polymers 113
2.4.7 Montmorillonite and Organo Clays (Nano Composites) 113
2.4.8 Carbon Nano-Tubes 114
2.5 Summary 115
3 Polymer Solutions and Swollen Vulcanizates 120
3.1 Introduction 120
3.2 Low Molecular Weight Solutions 120
3.3 Thermodynamics of Polymer Solutions: Flexible Chains 125
3.4 Solubility of Crystalline Polymers 127
3.5 Solutions of Rigid Chain Polymers 128
3.6 Thermodynamics of Heterogeneous Flexible Chain Polymer Solutions 129
3.7 Phase Separation and Equilibrium 129
3.8 Swelling of Vulcanizates 132
3.9 Rheological Properties of Polymer Solutions 133
3.10 Oil-Extended Rubber 137
3.11 Plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride 138
3.12 Summary 139
4 Polymer Additive Binary Systems 144
4.1 Introduction 144
4.2 Solubility of Additives 144
4.3 Antioxidants 146
4.3.1 General [1] 146
4.3.2 Mechanism of Oxidation 147
4.3.3 Antioxidant Mechanisms [13, 14] 148
4.3.4 AntioxidantMiscibility 148
4.3.5 Antioxidant Migration 149
4.4 Antiozonants [31, 32] 151
4.5 Light Stabilizers [33] 152
4.6 Heat Stabilizers 153
4.7 Processing Aids 155
4.8 Surface Property Modifiers 159
4.9 Antistatic Additives [73] 159
4.10 Nucleating Agents [76 to 96] 160
4.11 Curatives 162
4.11.1 Sulfur Crosslinking 162
4.11.2 Crosslinking by Organic Peroxides [106 to 108] 163
4.11.3 Crosslinking by Metallic Oxides [106, 110] 164
4.11.4 Crosslinking by Phenolic Derivatives [106, 111 to 113] 164
4.11.5 Crosslinking by High Energy Radiation [114] 164
4.12 Summary 167
5 Binary Polymer Blends 172
5.1 Introduction 172
5.2 Thermodynamics of Polymer-Polymer Miscibility [1 to 5] 172
5.3 Statistical Thermodynamic Interpretation 174
5.4 Miscible Polymer Blends 175
5.5 PartialMiscibility 179
5.6 ProblemsWith Copolymers 181
5.7 Immiscible Polymer Blends and Interfacial Tension 182
5.8 Phase Morphology in Immiscible Binary Polymer Blends 188
5.9 Special Polymer Melt Phase Distributions 190
5.10 Mechanical Properties of Binary Polymer Blends 192
5.11 Blends of Recycled Polymers 192
6 Ternary Systems: Polymer Blends plus Liquid Additives and Compatibilizing Agents 196
6.1 Introduction 196
6.2 Ternary Low Molecular Weight Systems 196
6.3 Polymer Plus Two Low MolecularWeight Liquids 198
6.4 Low MolecularWeight Oils/Additives in Binary Polymer Blends 201
6.5 Amphiphilic Molecules and Block Graft Copolymers in Immiscible Polymer Blends (Compatibilized Blends) 205
6.6 Mechanical Properties of Compatibilized Blends 207
6.7 Compatibilized Recycled Polymer Blends [54] 209
6.8 High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) 209
6.9 Ternary Polymer Blends 210
6.10 Summary 210
7 Polymer-Filler-Additives andCurative-Accelerator Compounds 216
7.1 Introduction 216
7.2 Mineral Fillers: Carboxylic Acid-Polymer 216
7.3 Organic-Silane Coupling Agent for Thermosets, Thermoplastics, and Rubber 218
7.4 Organo Clay Nanocomposites (Clay-Organic Amine-Polymer) 220
7.5 Rubber-Sulfur-Accelerator [98] 222
7.6 Crosslinking by Enzymes [103] 223
7.7 Particle Filler with Two Polymers 223
8 Multicomponent Compounds 228
8.1 Introduction 228
8.2 Simple Multicomponent Compounds 228
8.3 Tire Compounds 229
8.3.1 Polydiene-Carbon Black Oil Compounds 229
8.3.2 Polydiene-Rubber-Silica Compounds 230
8.4 Thermoplastic Compounds 231
8.4.1 Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds 231
8.4.2 Isotactic Polypropylene Compounds 232
8.4.3 Recycled Polymer Blend Compounds [26] 233
8.5 Rubber Compounds with Special Mechanical Properties 234
8.5.1 Chlorinated Butyl Rubber Compounds 234
8.5.2 Nitrile Rubber Compounds 237
8.5.3 Ethylene-Propylene-Diene Terpolymer (EPDM) Compounds 239
8.6 Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) Compounds [44, 45] 240
8.6.1 Elastomer-Modified Polypropylene 240
8.6.2 SBS-Type Thermoplastic Elastomer 240
9 Mixing Machinery: Batch and Continuous 244
9.1 Introduction 244
9.2 BatchMixers 244
9.2.1 Mills 244
9.2.2 Open BatchMixers 245
9.2.3 InternalMixers: Non-Intermeshing Rotors 249
9.2.3.1 Technology 249
9.2.3.2 Basic Studies 258
9.2.4 InternalMixers: Intermeshing 261
9.2.4.1 Technology 261
9.2.4.2 Basic Studies 262
9.2.5 InternalMixer Cycles 262
9.3 ContinuousMixers 264
9.3.1 Single-Screw Extruders [3, 4, 7] 264
9.3.2 List (Buss-Coperion) Kokneters/Kneaders [79, 80] 264
9.3.2.1 Technology 264
9.3.2.2 Basic Studies 266
9.3.3 Intermeshing Modular Co-Rotating Twin-Screw Extruders 267
9.3.3.1 Technology [6, 95 to 97] 267
9.3.3.2 Basic Studies 270
9.3.4 Intermeshing Modular Counter-Rotating Twin-Screw Extruders 272
9.3.4.1 Technology 272
9.3.4.2 Basic Studies 274
9.3.5 Tangential Modular Counter-Rotating Twin-Screw Extruders 275
9.3.5.1 Technology 275
9.3.5.2 Basic Studies 275
9.3.6 ContinuousMixers 276
9.3.6.1 Technology 276
9.3.6.2 Basic Studies 277
9.3.7 The Strategy of Adding Ingredients During Continuous Mixing 279
9.4 Comparison of CommercialMixing Machines 279
9.4.1 Batch InternalMixers vs.Continuous Mixers 279
9.4.2 Comparison of Continuous Mixing Machines 280
9.5 Reactive Extrusion 280
9.5.1 Polymer Modification and Grafting Reactions 280
9.5.2 Polymerization 281
Subject Index 290
Author Index 302