GPS for Geodesy

1 Reference Systems.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Transformations between the Celestial and Terrestrial Frames.- 1.3 Time Systems.- 1.4 Motion of the Earth's Rotation Axis.- 1.5 Earth Deformation.- 1.6 Conventional Reference Systems.- 1.7 The IGS.- 1.8 Summary.- 2 GPS Satellite Orbits.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Equations of Motion for GPS.- 2.3 The Perturbing Forces Acting on GPS Satellites.- 2.4 GPS Orbit Types.- 2.5 Summary and Conclusions.- 3 Propagation of the GPS Signals.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Electromagnetic Waves.- 3.3 The GPS Signals.- 3.4 Propagation of Signals in Refractive Media.- 3.5 Atmospheric Refraction.- 3.6 Signal Multipath and Scattering.- 3.7 Summary.- 4 GPS Receivers and the Observables.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 GPS Receivers.- 4.3 GPS Observables.- 4.4 Observation Measurement Errors.- 4.5 Summary.- 5 GPS Observation Equations and Positioning Concepts.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 GPS Observables.- 5.3 Linear Combinations.- 5.4 Single-Receiver NonPositioning Models.- 5.5 The Linearized Observation Equations for Positioning.- 5.6 Relative Positioning Models.- 5.7 Summary.- 6 GPS Data Processing Methodology.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Equivalence of Pseudorange and Carrier Phase.- 6.3 Equivalence of Stochastic and Functional Models.- 6.4 Frame Invariance and Estimability.- 6.5 Summary and Conclusions.- 7 Quality Control and GPS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Validation of Batch Solutions.- 7.3 Validation of Recursive Solutions.- 7.4 Applications to Some GPS Models.- 7.5 Summary and Conclusions.- 8 GPS Carrier Phase Ambiguity Fixing Concepts.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Integer Least-Squares Adjustment and Testing.- 8.3 Search for the Integer Least-Squares Ambiguities.- 8.4 The Invertible Ambiguity Transformations.- 8.5 The LSQ Ambiguity Decorrelation Adjustment.- 8.6 Summary.- 9 Active GPS Control Stations.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Active GPS Control Station Components.- 9.3 Single Channel Observation Equations.- 9.4 Real Time Integrity Monitoring.- 9.5 Active GPS Reference Systems.- 9.6 Summary and Conclusions.- 10 Single-Site GPS Models.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Pseudorange Relation.- 10.3 Direct Solution of Position and Receiver Clock Offset - Bancroft's Solution.- 10.4 Dilution of Precision.- 10.5 Combining Phase and Pseudorange for Single-Site Determinations.- 10.6 Summary.- 11 Short Distance GPS Models.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Short Distance GPS Models.- 11.3 Use of Both Pseudoranges and Phases.- 11.4 Disadvantages of Double Differences.- 11.5 Sequential Versus Batch Processing.- 11.6 Network Adjustment - the Final Step.- 11.7 Summary.- 12 Medium Distance GPS Measurements.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 GPS Models at Medium Distances.- 12.3 Analysis Modes.- 12.4 Network Adjustment.- 12.5 Case Studies.- 1.26 Summary.- 13 Long-Distance Kinematic GPS.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Data Analysis.- 13.3 Testing the Accuracy of Long-Range Kinematic GPS.- 13.4 Conclusions.- 14 The GPS as a Tool in Global Geodynamics.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 The Partial Derivatives of the GPS Observable with Respect to the Parameters of Global Geodynamics.- 14.3 Geodynamical Parameters not Accessible to the GPS.- 14.4 Estimating Tropospheric Refraction.- 14.5 Miscellaneous Orbit Modelling.- 14.6 Satellite- and Receiver- Clock Estimation.- 14.7 Producing Annual Solutions.- 14.8 Results.- 14.9 Summary and Conclusions.- 15 Atmospheric Models from GPS.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Distribution of Refractivity in the Atmosphere.- 15.3 Vertical Profiles of Refractivity from Radio Signal Occultation.- 15.4 Models for the Ionosphere.- 15.5 Summary and Conclusions.- 16 The Role of GPS in Space Geodesy.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Space Geodesy in 1997.- 16.3 Performance of the Major Space Techniques in the Recent Past.- 16.4 Space Geodesy: the Future.- 16.5 SLR Observations to GPS Satellites.- 16.6 Summary.