A wide spectra of topics are covered including design and modeling, fracture analysis, powder metallurgical processes, deposition and spray processes, reaction forming processes, novel processes, material evaluation for structural applications, organic and intelligent materials. Three reviews associated with national research programs on FGMs promoted in Japan and Germany, and the historical perspective of FGM research in Europe are presented as well.
The resulting work is recommended to researchers, engineers and graduate school students in the fields of materials science and engineering, mechanical and medical engineering.
Since a formulated concept of functionally graded materials (FGMs) was proposed in 1984 as a means of preparing thermal barrier materials, a coordinated research has been developed since 1986. The 125 papers presented here present state of the art research results and developments on FGM from the past decade.A wide spectra of topics are covered including design and modeling, fracture analysis, powder metallurgical processes, deposition and spray processes, reaction forming processes, novel processes, material evaluation for structural applications, organic and intelligent materials. Three reviews associated with national research programs on FGMs promoted in Japan and Germany, and the historical perspective of FGM research in Europe are presented as well.The resulting work is recommended to researchers, engineers and graduate school students in the fields of materials science and engineering, mechanical and medical engineering.
Front Cover 1
FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS 1996 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 10
GENERAL TOPICS 20
FGM research programs in Japan - from structural to functional uses 20
Research program on gradient materials in Germany 28
Lessons learnt in 7 years of FGM research at Lausanne 34
PART I: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS 40
Design and Modeling 40
Chapter 1. Local fields in functionally graded materials 40
Chapter 2. Computer-aided process design for forming of pore-gradient membranes 48
Chapter 3. Mathematical model for axial-symmetrical FGM 54
Chapter 4. Stress analysis in a two materials joint with a functionally graded material 60
Chapter 5. Optimum design and fabrication of TiC/Ni3Al-Ni functionally graded materials 66
Chapter 6. A mathematical model for particle distribution in functionally graded material produced by centrifugal cast 72
Chapter 7. Modeling and measurement of stress evolution in FGM coatings during fabrication by thermal spray 78
Chapter 8. Artificial neural network used for TiB2-Cu FGM design 84
Chapter 9. Deformation analysis of graded powder compacts during sintering 88
Chapter 10. Simulation of the elasto-plastic deformations in compositionally graded metalceramic structures: Mean-field and unit cell approaches 94
Chapter 11. Large deflections of heated functionally graded clamped rectangular plates with varying rigidity in thickness direction 100
Chapter 12. Model investigation of ceramic-metal FGMs under dynamic thermal loading: Residual stress effect, thermal-mechanical coupling effect and materials hardening model effect 106
Chapter 13. Fractal geometry and it's implications to surface technology 112
Chapter 14. Database system for project of the functionally graded materials 118
Fracture Analysis 124
Chapter 15. Fracture mechanics of graded materials 124
Chapter 16. Microstructural effects in functionally graded thermal barrier coatings 132
Chapter 17. Micromechanical failure criterion for FGM architecture studied via disk-bend testing of ZrO2/Ni composites 142
Chapter 18. Thermomechanical response characteristics of ZrO2/Ni functionally graded materials: An experimental study to check model predictions 150
Chapter 19. Micromechanical approach to the thermomechanical analysis of FGMs 156
Chapter 20. Effect of gradient microstructure on thermal shock crack extension in metal/ceramic functionally graded materials 162
Chapter 21. Thermal fracture mechanisms in functionally graded coatings 168
Powder Metallurgical Process 174
Chapter 22. Fabrication of AIN/W functionally graded materials 174
Chapter 23. Graded casting for producing smoothly varying gradients in materials 178
Chapter 24. Gradient components with a high melting point difference 186
Chapter 25. Fabrication of pore-gradient membranes via centrifugal casting 192
Chapter 26. Mechanical properties and microstructure of in-situTiCp reinforced aluminum base FGM by centrifugal cast 198
Chapter 27. Dispersion and fabrication of ZrO2/SUS316 functionally graded material by tape casting process 204
Chapter 28. Fabrication of ZrO2/Ni and ZrO2/Al2O3 functionally graded materials by explosive powder consolidation technique 210
Chapter 29. Development of metal/intermetallic compound functionally graded material produced by eutectic bonding method 216
Chapter 30. Mechanical performance of ZrO2-Ni functionally graded material by powder metallurgy 222
Chapter 31. Fabrication of PSZ-SUS 304 functionally graded materials 228
Chapter 32. Preliminary characterization of interlayer for Be/Cu functionally gradient materials - thermophysical properties of Be/Gu sintered compacts 234
Deposition and Spray Process 240
Chapter 33. Electrophoretic forming of functionally-graded barium/strontium titanate ceramics 240
Chapter 34. Processing and properties of electrodeposited functionally graded composite coatings of Ni-Al-Al2O3 246
Chapter 35. Functionally graded materials by electrochemical modification of porous preforms 252
Chapter 36. Thermal management of carbon-carbon composites by functionally graded fiber arrangement technique 258
Chapter 37. Formation and properties of TiC/Mo FGM coatings 264
Chapter 38. Formation of a Ti-Al2O3 functionally graded surface layer on a Ti substrate with the use of ultrafine particles 270
Chapter 39. Oxidation-resistant SiC coating system of C/C composites 276
Chapter 40. Al2O3-ZrO2 graded thermal barrier coatings by EB-PVD-concept, microstructure and phase stability 282
Chapter 41. Microstructure characteristic of plasma sprayed ZrO2/NiCoCrAlY graded coating 288
Reaction Forming Process 294
Chapter 42. Formation of functionally-graded materials through centrifugally-assisted combustion synthesis 294
Chapter 43. SHS - a new technological approach for creation of novel multilayered diamond-containing materials with graded structure 302
Chapter 44. Graded dispersion of diamond in TiB2-based cermet by SHS/dynamic pseudo isostatic compaction(DPIC) 308
Chapter 45. Annealing of ceramic/metal graded materials fabricated by SHS/QP method 314
Chapter 46. Thermodynamic calculation and processing of TiBg-Cu FGM 320
Chapter 47. Fabrication of Al-Cu system with functionally graded density profiles 326
Chapter 48. Al2O3 to Ni-superalloy diffusion bonded FG-joints for high temperature applications 332
Novel Process 338
Chapter 49. Advances in the fabrication of functionally graded materials using extrusion freeform fabrication 338
Chapter 50. Novel routes to functionally graded ceramics via atmosphere-induced dopant valence gradients 344
Chapter 51. The growth of functionally graded crystals by verneuil's technique 350
Chapter 52. Excimer laser processing of functionally graded materials 356
Chapter 53. Development of stainless steel/PSZ functionally graded materials by means of an expression operation 362
Chapter 54. Microwave sintering of metal-ceramic FGM 368
Chapter 55. Residual stress control of functionally graded materials via pulse-electric discharge consolidation with temperature gradient control 374
Chapter 56. Study on the composition graded cemented carbide/steel by spark plasma sintering 380
Chapter 57. Phase composition profile character of a functionally-graded Al2TiO5/ZrO3-Al2Oa composite 386
Chapter 58. The use of a functionally graded material in the manufacture of a graded permittivity element 392
Material Evaluation 398
Chapter 59. Evaluation and modelling of the residual stresses generated on functionally graded materials - Two examples 398
Chapter 60. Residual strains and stresses in an Al2O3-Ni joint bonded with a composite interlayer: FEM predictions and experimental measurements 406
Chapter 61. Residual thermal stresses in functionally graded Ti-TiCx materials 416
Chapter 62. The effect of constituent and microstructure of composites on the residual thermal stress in TiC-Ni3AI FGMs 422
Chapter 63. New application of FGM to identification of unknown multicomponent precipitates 428
Chapter 64. Evaluation of graded thermal barrier coating for gas turbine engine 432
Chapter 65. Mechanical and electrical properties of multilayer composites of silicon carbide 438
Chapter 66. The effect of thermal shock on the thermal conductivity of a functionally graded material 444
Chapter 67. Non-destructive evaluation of carbon fibre-reinforced structures using high frequency eddy current methods 452
Chapter 68. Thermal diffusivity measurement forSiC/C compositionally graded graphite materials 458
Chapter 69. High-temperature ductility of TiC as evaluated by small punch testing and the effect of Cr3C2 additive 464
Chapter 70. Mechanical and thermal properties of PSZ/Ni-base superalloy composite 470
Chapter 71. Processing-working stress unified analysis model and optimum design of ceramic-metal functionally graded materials 476
Chapter 72. Evaluation test of C/C composites coated with SiC/C FGM, under simulated condition for aerospace application 482
Chapter 73. Durability and high altitude performance tests of regeneratively cooled thrust engine made of ZrO2/Ni functionally graded materials 488
PART II: ENERGY CONVERSION, ELECTRONIC AND ORGANIC MATERIALS 494
Thermoelectric Materials 494
Chapter 74. Research on enhancement of thermoelectric figure of merit through functionally graded material processing technology in Japan 494
Chapter 75. A design procedure of functionally graded thermoelectric materials 502
Chapter 76. Transport properties in multi-barrier systems 508
Chapter 77. Theoretical estimation of thermoelectric figure of merit in sintered materials and proposal of grain-size-graded structures 514
Chapter 78. Computer design of thermoelectric functionally graded materials 520
Chapter 79. Anisotropic carrier scattering in n-type Bi2Te2.85Se0 15 single crystal doped with HgBr2 528
Chapter 80. Percolation design of graded composite of powder metallurgically prepared SiGe and PbTe 534
Chapter 81. Design of multi-functionally graded structure of cylindrical Rl heat source for thermoelectric conversion system 540
Chapter 82. Fabrication of N-type polycrystalline Bi-Sb and their thermoelectric properties 546
Chapter 83. Development of functionally graded thermoelectric materials by PIES method 552
Chapter 84. Microstructure and thermoelectric properties of p-type Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 fabricated by hot pressing 558
Chapter 85. Microstructural and thermoelectric properties of hot-extruded p-type Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 564
Chapter 86. Effect of dopants on thermoelectric properties and anisotropies for unidirectionally solidified n-Bi2Te3 570
Chapter 87. Thermoelectric properties of arc-melted silicon borides 576
Chapter 88. Graded thermoelectric materials by plasma spray forming 582
Chapter 89. Preparation of PbTe-FGM by joining melt-grown materials 588
Chapter 90. Improvement and thermal stability of thermoelectric properties for n-type segmented PbTe 594
Chapter 91. Preparation and thermoelectric properties of IrSbg 600
Chapter 92. p-n joining of melt-grown and sintered PbTe by plasma activated sintering 606
Chapter 93. Trial manufacture of functionally graded Si-Ge thermoelectric material 612
Chapter 94. Microstructure and property of (Si-MoSi2)/SiGe thermoelectric converter unit 618
Chapter 95. Temperature dependence of the porosity controlled SiC/B4C+PSS thermoelectric properties 624
Chapter 96. Preparation of B4C-B system composites adding PSS and their thermoelectric properties 630
Chapter 97. Joint of n-type PbTe with different carrier concentration and its thermoelectric properties 636
Chapter 98. Effects of plasma treatment on thermoelectric properties of Si80Ge20 sintered alloys 642
Chapter 99. Gontrol of temperature dependence of thermoelectric properties of manganese silicide by FGM approach 646
Chapter 100. Heat sensing device with thermoelectric film laid on insulated metal sheet 652
Thermionic Materials 658
Chapter 101. Recent developments in oxygenated thermionic converters 658
Chapter 102. Development of refractory metal oxide collector materials and their thermionic converter performance 666
Chapter 103. Thermionic properties and thermal stability of emitter with a (0001) oriented rhenium layer and graded structure 674
Chapter 104. Development of efficient thermionic energy converter 680
Chapter 105. Radiation dose reduction by graded structures in the heat source of a 90Sr radioisotope battery 686
Chapter 106. Output increase of thermionic energy converter due to the illumination of xenon short arc lamp 692
Chapter 107. Hybrid mode concept of a thermionic converter with a FGM structured collector 700
Electronic Materials 706
Chapter 108. Thermoelectrically modulated/nanoscale multilayered gradient materials for application in the electromagnetic gun systems 706
Chapter 109. Synthesis of In-Sb alloys by directional solidification in microgravity and normal gravity condition 714
Chapter 110. Full-colored zinc gallate phosphor with graded composition 720
Chapter 111. Synthesis and characterization of a model CuO/SnO2 oxygen sensor 726
Chapter 112. Fabrication of magnetic functionally graded material by martensitic transformation technique 732
Chapter 113. Characterization of single-crystalline Cu/Nb multilayer films by ion beam analysis 738
Chapter 114. Enrichment of 28Si by infrared laser irradiation 744
Natural, Organic and Intelligent Materials 750
Chapter 115. Adaptive and functionally graded structure of bamboo 750
Chapter 116. Learning about design of FGM sfrom intelligent modeling system in natural composites 756
Chapter 117. Development of the fire door with functionally graded wood 762
Chapter 118. Elemental mapping of functionally graded dental implant in biocompatibility test 768
Chapter 119. Characteristics of epoxy-modified zirconium phosphate materials produced by an infiltration process 774
Chapter 120. Preparation and properties of PVC/polymethacrylate graded blends by a dissolution - Diffusion method 780
Chapter 121. Preparation and properties of polyimide/Cu functionally graded material 786
Chapter 122. Smart functionally graded material without bending deformation 792
Author Index 800
FGM research programs in japan —from structural to functional uses
Y. Miyamotoa; M. Niinob; M. Koizumic a The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Japan
b National Aerospace Laboratories, Kakuda, Japan
c Faculty of Science and Technology, Ryukoku University, Japan
Abstract
The FGM concept can be applied to various material fields for structural and functional uses. In Japan, several five-year programs have been conducted over the past ten years in order to develop the architecture of FGMs, and also to develop these materials for high temperature applications (e.g., components for the hypersonic space plane) and for functional applications (e.g., thermoelectric and thermionic converters). These programs are discussed with respect to the construction of FGM architecture and the future of FGMs.
1 APPLICATION OF THE FGM CONCEPT
A functionally graded material (FGM) is a material in which the composition and structure gradually change resulting in a corresponding change in the properties of the material. This FGM concept can be applied to various materials for structural and functional uses.
In order to create FGMs, the architecture of design, processing, and evaluation needs to be developed because no comprehensive study of such nonuniform materials has been carried out previously. The concept of integrating incompatible functions such as the refractoriness of ceramics and the toughness of metals with the relaxation of thermal stress, lead to a research project for the development of FGM architecture in 1987 [1]. In fact, it is possible to integrate a variety of dissimilar materials and properties if the thermal expansion mismatch or lattice mismatch can be relaxed and chemical compatibility can be maintained. Many applications exist that require high temperature resistance or thermal shock resistance, where the FGM concept can be applied.
2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FGM ARCHITECTURE
2.1 For structural uses--the integration of refractoriness and toughness
A five-year research program entitled “Fundamental Study on the Relaxation of Thermal Stress for High Temperature Materials by the Tailoring of Graded Structures” was established in 1987 with a total budget of 1,215 million yen under the auspice of the Science and Technology Agency. The goal was to develop the architecture of FGMs for structural uses and for high temperature components for the future hypersonic space plane. About 30 research organizations from national institutes, universities, and companies participated in the program as a member of one of three major groups: design, processing, or evaluation. Each investigation was coordinated for the purpose of developing the fundamental architecture of FGMs and their applications.
Figure 1 illustrates the major results of the research program [2,3]. For example, with respect to design and modeling, a CAD system using an inverse design model was developed that can produce an overall design architecture including selecting compositions and microstructures and optimizing the graded arrangement. Thermophysical parameters measured or calculated to minimize thermal stress both under process and service conditions were used for this optimization. A fuzzy function was used to combine different microstructures and properties smoothly, and a micromechanical approach to correlate graded microstructures and properties was established. Fractal and percolation theories were introduced for the quantitative analysis of the spatial change in graded microstructures, and FEM was used to model the distribution of internal stress.
A number of processes were developed that use CVD, PVD, plasma spray, powder metallurgy, SHS, and galvanoforming. Several combined processes were also developed including CVD/CVI, PM/CVD, SHS/HIP, and plasma spray/galvanoforming. Various FGM samples were fabricated such as disks of SiC/C, AlN/SiC, PSZ/stainless steel, PSZ/Ni, TiC/Ni, Cr3C2/Ni, TiB2/Cu; nose cones of SiC/CC; and rods of PSZ/Ni.
A small punch test was devised to evaluate the fracture energy of a thin FGM disk. Two methods were developed for the evaluation of thermal shock resistance up to 2000 K: irradiation by a strong xenon lamp and heating using an oxygen/hydrogen mixed-gas flame burner. Small combustion chambers for rocket engines made of SiC/CC by CVD/CVI and of ZrO2/Ni by plasma spray/galvanoforming are undergoing combustion tests at the National Aerospace Laboratory.
Although this program did not extend beyond fundamental research, it established the future direction for continuing FGM research worldwide. The FGM concept has been applied by several industries to a variety of products. To date, high performance cutting tools of TiCN/WC/Co, Ni FGM [4] and shaving blades of Al-Fe intermetallics/stainless steel FGM [5] have been commercialized. However, other commercial applications are still limited.
2.2 For functional uses -- the direct conversion of thermal energy to electric energy
Because the FGM concept was expected to be applicable to materials for functional uses as well as for structural applications, a new five-year project was initiated in 1993 with the aim of applying the FGM concept to the development of highly efficient thermionic and thermoelectric energy conversion materials. Both a themionic converter (TIC) and a thermoelectric converter (TEC) can produce electric power directly from thermal energy by the electron flow generated in space or in a solid under a high temperature differential. Figure 2 illustrates this ongoing program. In this Hybrid Direct Energy Conversion System, a TIC and a TEC are combined, and solar energy is used as the heat source to create a large temperature differential from ~ 2000 K to ~ 300 K. The design and optimization of the graded fields with respect both to the electronic and the elastic potential should lead to higher conversion efficiency with the relaxation of thermal stress. Thus the development of FGM architecture that would combine structural and functional properties is another goal of this program.
2.2.1 The design and processing of graded components for TICs and TECs
In order to develop efficient and long lasting TICs and TECs, or combinations of these devices, an optimized system with lower heat loss and less degradation must be assembled using high performance TIC and TEC materials and devices. This will require solving various interface problems with respect to heat and carrier transportation, materials joining, thermal stress, electric contact, and insulation under extreme thermal conditions.
1) Graded C/C heat reservoir
In order to achieve efficient heat accumulation and transfer from solar rays, a composite FGM consisting of a 3-D graded alignment of carbon fibers and pitch infiltration has been developed at Nippon Oil Company Ltd. [6]. Carbon fibers are highly anisotropic with respect to thermal conductivity along and across their length. Therefore, the graded alignment of fibers is designed to have a higher fiber density along the heat flux at the inner layer.
A woven carbon fiber cup with a graded texture was infiltrated with pitch and hot isostatically pressed (HIP) to graphitize the pitch and densify the structure. Figure 3(a) shows the graded alignment of carbon fibers, and Figure 3(b) is a photo of the dense, graded C/C heat reservoir after HIPing. Solar rays are concentrated in this graded C/C heat reservoir by a large parabolic mirror, and the bottom and lateral sides are uniformly heated to 1680 °C and 1380 °C, respectively. The heat reservoir is covered with a radiat ion shield made of a highly polished cylinder of single crystal Mo (see Figure 1). A high heat flux of 1450 °C can be transported from the bottom of the reservoir to the back surface of the TIC emitter electrode by heat radiation.
2) The graded TiC/Mo/W/Re TIC emitter
Titanium carbide is a promising material for the heat receiver of the TIC emitter because of its high melting point (3000 °C) and its high emissivity (~ 0.9), which allows the efficient absorption of heat from a wide range of the solar spectrum at a high temperature. A graded coating of TiC/Mo with low thermal stress has been developed by using a double-gun plasma spray technique developed at the National Research Institute for Metals [7]. No cracks were observed in this graded coating after heating to 1800 °C.
The coating was formed on the back of the Mo/W/Re emitter electrode [8]. W and Re were deposited on a Mo substrate by CVD. The compositionally graded layer formed through inter-diffusion of these elements at 2300 °C by heat treatment. The W can act as a diffusion barrier for Re thereby creating a stable compositional gradation up to 2000 °C. Figure 4 shows the graded cross section...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 2.9.1997 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie ► Thermodynamik |
| Technik ► Maschinenbau | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-053209-8 / 0080532098 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-053209-7 / 9780080532097 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
PDF (Adobe DRM)Größe: 46,5 MB
Kopierschutz: Adobe-DRM
Adobe-DRM ist ein Kopierschutz, der das eBook vor Mißbrauch schützen soll. Dabei wird das eBook bereits beim Download auf Ihre persönliche Adobe-ID autorisiert. Lesen können Sie das eBook dann nur auf den Geräten, welche ebenfalls auf Ihre Adobe-ID registriert sind.
Details zum Adobe-DRM
Dateiformat: PDF (Portable Document Format)
Mit einem festen Seitenlayout eignet sich die PDF besonders für Fachbücher mit Spalten, Tabellen und Abbildungen. Eine PDF kann auf fast allen Geräten angezeigt werden, ist aber für kleine Displays (Smartphone, eReader) nur eingeschränkt geeignet.
Systemvoraussetzungen:
PC/Mac: Mit einem PC oder Mac können Sie dieses eBook lesen. Sie benötigen eine
eReader: Dieses eBook kann mit (fast) allen eBook-Readern gelesen werden. Mit dem amazon-Kindle ist es aber nicht kompatibel.
Smartphone/Tablet: Egal ob Apple oder Android, dieses eBook können Sie lesen. Sie benötigen eine
Geräteliste und zusätzliche Hinweise
Zusätzliches Feature: Online Lesen
Dieses eBook können Sie zusätzlich zum Download auch online im Webbrowser lesen.
Buying eBooks from abroad
For tax law reasons we can sell eBooks just within Germany and Switzerland. Regrettably we cannot fulfill eBook-orders from other countries.
EPUB (Adobe DRM)Größe: 37,8 MB
Kopierschutz: Adobe-DRM
Adobe-DRM ist ein Kopierschutz, der das eBook vor Mißbrauch schützen soll. Dabei wird das eBook bereits beim Download auf Ihre persönliche Adobe-ID autorisiert. Lesen können Sie das eBook dann nur auf den Geräten, welche ebenfalls auf Ihre Adobe-ID registriert sind.
Details zum Adobe-DRM
Dateiformat: EPUB (Electronic Publication)
EPUB ist ein offener Standard für eBooks und eignet sich besonders zur Darstellung von Belletristik und Sachbüchern. Der Fließtext wird dynamisch an die Display- und Schriftgröße angepasst. Auch für mobile Lesegeräte ist EPUB daher gut geeignet.
Systemvoraussetzungen:
PC/Mac: Mit einem PC oder Mac können Sie dieses eBook lesen. Sie benötigen eine
eReader: Dieses eBook kann mit (fast) allen eBook-Readern gelesen werden. Mit dem amazon-Kindle ist es aber nicht kompatibel.
Smartphone/Tablet: Egal ob Apple oder Android, dieses eBook können Sie lesen. Sie benötigen eine
Geräteliste und zusätzliche Hinweise
Zusätzliches Feature: Online Lesen
Dieses eBook können Sie zusätzlich zum Download auch online im Webbrowser lesen.
Buying eBooks from abroad
For tax law reasons we can sell eBooks just within Germany and Switzerland. Regrettably we cannot fulfill eBook-orders from other countries.
aus dem Bereich
