Human Motor Control (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Human Motor Control 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Acknowledgments 14
Preface 16
PART I: PRELIMINARIES 18
Chapter 1. Introduction 20
Understanding Human Motor Control 21
Levels of Analysis 23
Fields Contributing to Research on Human Motor Control 25
Physics 25
Engineering 25
Statistics 26
Behavioral Science, Cognitive Science, and Human Factors 26
Physiology, Neuroscience, Medicine, and Allied Fields 26
Organization of the Book 26
Summary 28
Chapter 2. Core Problems 30
The Degrees of Freedom Problem 31
Whose Problem Is the Degrees of Freedom Problem? 32
Why the Term "Degrees of Freedom"? 33
Synergies 33
Relying on Mechanics 37
Efficiency 37
The Sequencing and Timing Problem 39
Speech Errors 39
Coarticulation 41
Timing 42
The Perceptual-Motor Integration Problem 44
Feedback 44
Feedforward 45
Movement Enhances Perception 47
Movement Informs Perception 48
Mirror Neurons 50
The Learning Problem 51
Learning by Doing 52
Learning by Practicing Deliberately 53
Learning Through Specificity of Practice 54
Learning Through Neural Plasticity 56
Summary 58
Further Reading 60
Chapter 3. Physiological Foundations 62
Muscle 65
The Length-Tension Relation 66
Motor Units and Recruitment 68
Proprioception 69
Muscle Spindles 70
Golgi Tendon Organs 72
Joint Receptors 73
Cutaneous Receptors 73
Spinal Cord 74
Spinal Reflexes 74
Servo Theory 74
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Recurrent Inhibition 76
Reciprocal Inhibition 77
The Smart Spinal Cord 79
Tuning of Spinal Reflexes 80
Cerebellum 80
Regulation of Muscle Tone 81
Coordination 82
Timing 82
Learning 84
Basal Ganglia 84
Huntington's Disease 85
Parkinson's Disease 85
Theories of Basal Ganglia Function 86
Motor Cortex 88
Force and Direction Control 90
Whole-Body Movement 92
Long-Loop Reflexes 93
Premotor Cortex 94
Supplementary Motor Area 95
Parietal Cortex 99
Apraxia 100
Cross-Modal Integration 101
Disconnections 103
Concluding Remarks 104
Summary 105
Further Reading 108
Chapter 4. Psychological Foundations 112
Theories of Sequencing and Timing 113
Response Chaining 113
Element-to-Position Associations 116
Inter-Element Inhibition 117
Hierarchies 118
Skill Acquisition 120
Closed-Loop Theory 120
Generalized Programs 122
Hierarchical Learning 125
Mental Practice and Imagery 128
Stage Theory 129
Physical Changes in Skill Acquisition 131
Codes and Stores 134
Codes 134
Procedural and Declarative Knowledge 135
Long-Term Memory 137
Short-Term Memory 138
History Effects 141
Motor Programs 143
The Motor Output Buffer 144
States of Mind 146
Attention 146
Intention 147
Ideo-Motor Theory 148
Summary 150
Further Reading 153
PART II: THE ACTIVITY SYSTEMS 154
Chapter 5. Walking 156
Descriptions of Walking 157
Gait Patterns at Different Speeds 157
Regularities in Gait Patterns 160
Neural Control of Locomotion 162
Neural Circuits for Locomotion 164
The Role of Sensory Feedback 167
Descending Effects 168
Anticipatory Postural Adjustments 171
Walking Machines 172
The Development of Walking 175
Neonatal Reflexes 176
Disappearance and Reappearance of Stepping 177
Models of Motor Development 179
Navigating 182
Visual Kinesthesis 182
Development of Visual Guidance 184
Memory 185
Route Maps and Survey Maps 186
Memory and Feedback 187
Summary 189
Further Reading 192
Chapter 6. Looking 194
Blinking 195
Accommodation 198
Pupil Constriction and Dilation 198
General Features of Eye Movements 200
Why Moveable Eyes? 200
Physical Dynamics 201
Activation of the Extra-Ocular Muscles 203
Conjugate and Disjunctive Eye Movements 205
Miniature Eye Movements 205
Saccades 208
Saccadic Suppression 212
Saccades and Attention 213
Smooth Pursuit Movements 215
Optokinetic Nystagmus 216
Vestibular-Oculo-Motor Reflex 218
Vergence Movements 221
Eye Movements and Space Constancy 222
Development and Plasticity of Oculo-Motor Control 226
Summary 227
Further Reading 230
Chapter 7. Reaching and Grasping 232
The Development of Reaching and Grasping 235
Direction 236
Distance 236
Orientation 236
Size 237
Functional Tuning of Grasps in Infancy 237
Visual Guidance 238
Vision and Touch 240
Vision for Action 242
Eye-Hand Coordination 243
Aiming 246
Woodworth's Pioneering Study 248
Fitts' Law 250
Iterative Corrections Model 251
Impulse Variability Model 252
Optimized Initial Impulse Model 253
Equilibrium Point Hypothesis 254
Discrete Versus Continuous Movements 258
Intersegmental Coordination 259
Transport and Grasp Phases 261
Hand-Space versus Joint-Space Planning 262
Moving Two Hands at Once 265
Summary 269
Further Reading 270
Chapter 8. Drawing and Writing 272
Drawing 275
Planning of Strokes 275
The Isogony Principle 278
Two-Third Power Law 279
Drawing Smoothly 283
Control of Writing 284
Error Analyses 284
Dysgraphia 284
Reaction Time Evidence for Grapheme Selection 286
Reaction Time Evidence for Allograph Selection 286
Writing Size, Relative Timing, and Absolute Timing 287
Context Effects 289
Writing and Handedness 291
The Dynamic Dominance Hypothesis 293
Summary 294
Further Reading 296
Chapter 9. Keyboarding 298
Reaction Time 300
Simple Reaction Time 300
Choice Reaction Time 301
Stimulus-Response Compatibility 303
Ideo-Motor Accounts of Stimulus-Response Compatibility 305
The SNARC Effect 306
The Simon Effect 307
The Stroop Effect 307
Response-Response Compatibility 308
Simultaneous and Sequential Finger Presses 309
Simultaneous Keystrokes 309
Sequences of Keypresses 310
Learning Keyboard Sequences 314
Control of Rhythm and Timing 315
Hierarchical Time Keepers 317
Event Timing 318
Amodality of Timing 320
Integration of Serial Order and Timing 321
Adjusting the Rate of Production for Entire Sequences 322
Typing 324
Historical Issues 325
Units of Typing Control 327
Typing Errors 328
Timing of Keystrokes in Typewriting 328
Rumelhart and Norman's Model of Typewriting 333
Piano Playing 335
Summary 338
Further Reading 342
Chapter 10. Speaking and Singing 344
The Issues 345
Overview of the Chapter 347
The Vocal Tract and Articulatory Dynamics 349
The Respiratory System 349
Laryngeal Mechanisms 350
Articulatory Mechanisms 352
The Pharynx 353
Vowels 353
Consonants 354
Variability 356
The Motor Theory of Speech Perception 357
The Target Hypothesis 358
Relative Positions and Acoustic Targets 360
A Mechanism for Relative Positioning 362
A Parallel Distributed Processing System for Coarticulation 364
High-Level Control of Speech 367
Word Games 367
Laboratory Studies of Speaking Speed 368
Speech Errors 370
Brain Mechanisms Underlying Speech 374
Bird Song 375
Motor Resonance 378
Summary 380
Further Reading 383
Chapter 11. Smiling 384
Physical Control of the Face 385
Neural Control of the Face 387
Control of the Upper and Lower Face 387
Volitional and Emotional Control 387
Left-Right Differences 389
Origins of Emotional Expression 390
Innateness and Universality 390
Causal Connections Between Expressions and Emotions 391
Associations Between Expressions and Emotions 392
Social Interaction 395
Imitation in Newborns 396
Imitation in Married Couples 396
Summary 398
Further Reading 399
PART III: PRINCIPLES AND PROSPECTS 400
Chapter 12. Moving On 402
Integration 402
Hitting Oncoming Balls 403
Golf Putting 406
Walking and Reaching 408
Enactive Cognition 409
More Subtle Manifestations of Cognition in Action 411
Moving with Others 414
Motion and Emotion 415
Individual Differences 418
Theories of Human Motor Control 420
Dynamical Systems Theory 423
Optimization 428
Innovations 435
Genetics 435
Technology 438
Concluding Remarks 441
Summary 444
Further Reading 446
References 448
Author Index 490
A 490
B 490
C 492
D 493
E 493
F 494
G 494
H 495
I 496
J 497
K 497
L 498
M 499
N 500
O 500
P 500
Q 501
R 501
S 502
T 504
U 504
V 504
W 505
Y 505
Z 506
Subject Index 508
A 508
B 509
C 510
D 511
E 512
F 513
G 514
H 514
I 515
J 516
K 516
L 516
M 517
N 519
O 519
P 520
Q 521
R 521
S 523
T 525
U 526
V 526
W 527
Y 528
Z 528