Trace Fossils (eBook)

Front cover 1
TRACE FOSSILS CONCEPTS, PROBLEMS, PROSPECTS 4
Copyright page 5
Table of contents 6
Introduction: A User’s Guide 14
List of Reviewers 18
Contributors 20
Memorial to Roland Goldring (1928–2005) 22
SECTION I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ICHNOLOGY 26
CHAPTER 1. The Wadden Sea, Cradle of Invertebrate Ichnology 28
INTRODUCTION 28
THE EARLY BEGINNINGS OF ICHNOLOGY 28
THE ROLE OF EXPERIMENTS 29
RESEARCH IN THE WADDEN SEA 29
ICHNOLOGY ELSEWHERE IN THE WADDEN SEA 33
THE PROMOTION OF ICHNOLOGY 33
CONCLUSIONS 35
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 35
References 35
CHAPTER 2. The Antecedents of Invertebrate Ichnology in North America: The Canadian and Cincinnati Schools 39
INTRODUCTION 39
THE EARLY CANADIAN SCHOOL 40
THE CINCINNATI SCHOOL 48
CONCLUSIONS 53
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 54
References 54
CHAPTER 3. Edward Hitchcock and Roland Bird: Two Early Titans of Vertebrate Ichnology in North America 57
INTRODUCTION 57
THE ICHNOLOGY OF THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY 58
ROLAND BIRD AND THE DISCOVERY OF SAUROPOD TRACKS 66
CONCLUSIONS 74
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 74
References 74
CHAPTER 4. The Ichnofacies Paradigm: A Fifty-Year Retrospective 77
INTRODUCTION 77
THE RISE OF THE ICHNOFACIES CONCEPT 78
CONTINENTAL ICHNOFACIES 80
SOFTGROUND MARINE ICHNOFACIES 83
SUBSTRATE-CONTROLLED ICHNOFACIES 93
USING THE ICHNOFACIES PARADIGM 99
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 100
References 100
SECTION II: CONCEPTS, METHODS, THEORY, AND CONNECTIONS TO THE EARTH AND BIOLOGIC SCIENCES 104
CHAPTER 5. What’s in a Name? Nomenclature, Systematics, Ichnotaxonomy 106
INTRODUCTION 106
TREATING NAMES OF TRACE FOSSILS: NOMENCLATURE 107
CLASSIFYING TRACE FOSSILS: SYSTEMATICS 107
NAMING TRACE FOSSILS: ICHNOTAXONOMY 108
CONCLUSIONS 115
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 115
References 116
CHAPTER 6. Taphonomy of Trace Fossils 117
INTRODUCTION 117
TRACE FOSSIL PRESERVATION IN SOFT MUD 118
PRESERVATION IN HETEROLITHIC SOFTGROUND SUCCESSIONS 123
PRESERVATION IN COARSE-GRAINED SUBSTRATES 126
PRESERVATION IN FIRMGROUNDS 128
PRESERVATION IN HARD SUBSTRATES 129
PRESERVATION IN WOODGROUNDS 130
ICHNOFOSSIL-LAGERSTA¨TTEN 131
CONCLUSIONS 132
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 132
References 132
CHAPTER 7. Uses of Trace Fossils in Genetic Stratigraphy 135
INTRODUCTION 135
SUBSTRATE-CONTROLLED ICHNOFACIES 138
SUBSTRATE-CONTROLLED ICHNOFACIES AND THE ROLE OF AUTOCYCLICITY 144
ICHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS TO GENETIC STRATIGRAPHY 145
CONCLUSIONS 155
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 155
References 156
CHAPTER 8. The Application of Trace Fossils to Biostratigraphy 160
INTRODUCTION 160
LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF TRACE FOSSILS IN BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 160
CHARACTERISTIC APPLICATIONS OF TRACE FOSSILS IN BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 161
OTHER POTENTIALLY USEFUL ICHNOTAXA 170
TOWARD RELIABLE TRACE-FOSSIL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 171
CONCLUDING DISCUSSION 171
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 172
References 172
CHAPTER 9. Trace Fossils and Marine Benthic Oxygenation 174
INTRODUCTION 174
OXYGEN-RELATED ICHNOCOENOSES (ORI) 174
MANIFESTATION OF ORI IN VERTICAL SEQUENCES 176
CASE STUDY—CRETACEOUS BRIDGE CREEK LIMESTONE 178
POTENTIAL LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 179
CONCLUSIONS 181
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 181
References 181
CHAPTER 10. Climatic Control of Marine Trace Fossil Distribution 184
INTRODUCTION 184
CONSTRAINTS ON RECOGNITION OF CLIMATIC CONTROL OF TRACE FOSSILS 185
ICHNOLOGY OF CERTAIN CRUSTACEANS 186
SPATANGOID ECHINOID ICHNOLOGY 189
DISCUSSION ON MODERN DISTRIBUTIONS OF INFAUNAL ECHINOIDS AND OPHIOMORPHA-FORMING CRUSTACEANS 189
OPHIOMORPHA AND SPATANGOID TRACE FOSSILS 190
OTHER TRACE FOSSILS OF POSSIBLE CLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE 193
CONCLUSIONS 194
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 195
References 195
CHAPTER 11. Climatic Controls on Continental Trace Fossils 197
INTRODUCTION 197
DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS AND THEIR TRACES—ICHNOFOSSILS 198
SOIL FORMATION AND PALAEOSOLS 200
SOIL-WATER BALANCE: LINKING SOIL, BIOTA, AND CLIMATE 201
CLIMATE 202
ICHNOPEDOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS AS CLIMATE INDICATORS: ORGANISM BEHAVIORS AND PALAEOSOLS 206
PREDICTIONS OF ICHNOPEDOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS OF PALAEOCLIMATE 209
CONCLUSIONS 217
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 218
References 218
CHAPTER 12. The Trace-Fossil Record of Vertebrates 221
INTRODUCTION 221
VERTEBRATE ICHNOLOGY: CONCEPTS AND METHODS 222
LOCOMOTION TRACES: TRAILS, TRACKS, AND TRACKWAYS 222
BURROWS AND NESTS 230
FEEDING TRACE FOSSILS 236
HOMINID TRACE FOSSILS 239
FUTURE DIRECTIONS 240
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 241
References 241
CHAPTER 13. Zoophycos and the Role of Type Specimens in Ichnotaxonomy 244
INTRODUCTION 244
AN ENIGMATIC FOSSIL 244
THE TYPE SPECIMEN 249
A NEW TYPE ICHNOSPECIES FOR ZOOPHYCOS 249
ICHNOGENUS ZOOPHYCOS MASSALONGO 1855 251
CONCLUSIONS 253
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 255
References 255
CHAPTER 14. Ichnofacies, Ichnocoenoses, and Ichnofabrics of Quaternary Shallow-Marine to Dunal Tropical Carbonates: A Model and Implications 257
INTRODUCTION 257
ICHNOLOGY OF CARBONATE VS. SILICICLASTIC ENVIRONMENTS 258
THE GEOLOGIC AND ICHNOLOGIC SETTING: BAHAMAS AND SOUTH FLORIDA 259
ICHNOCOENOSES OF THE SKOLITHOS ICHNOFACIES 259
ICHNOCOENOSES OF THE PSILONICHNUS ICHNOFACIES 266
CONCLUSIONS 270
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 271
References 271
CHAPTER 15. Deep-Sea Ichnology: Development of Major Concepts 273
INTRODUCTION 273
AGE OF FUCOIDS 273
FROM ALGAE TO WORMS: TOWARDS CONSISTENT ICHNOTAXONOMY 274
MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS 275
WHAT WORMS ARE DOING: FOSSIL BEHAVIOUR 275
ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TRACE FOSSILS AND THE ICHNOFACIES CONCEPT 277
COLONIZATION, BIOTURBATION AND ICHNOFABRIC CONCEPTS 278
SUBSTRATE 282
TROPHIC LEVEL 283
CHANGES THROUGH GEOLOGICAL TIME AND EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS 284
DEEP-SEA FINE-GRAINED NON-TURBIDITIC SEDIMENTS 286
NEOICHNOLOGY 287
FURTHER PERSPECTIVES 287
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 288
References 288
CHAPTER 16. Continental Ichnology: Fundamental Processes and Controls on Trace Fossil Distribution 293
INTRODUCTION 293
THE CONTINENTAL REALM 294
TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC BIOTA: TRACEMAKER CLASSIFICATION AND BEHAVIOR 301
SYNTHESIS: CONTINENTAL ICHNOCOENOSES 304
CONCLUSION: TWO DISTINCT PARTS BUT ONE ICHNOLOGY 307
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 308
References 308
CHAPTER 17. Invertebrate Ichnology of Continental Freshwater Environments 310
INTRODUCTION 310
CONTINENTAL ICHNOFACIES 310
ICHNOLOGY OF FLUVIAL SYSTEMS 312
ICHNOLOGY OF LACUSTRINE SYSTEMS 324
THE ICHNOFABRIC APPROACH TO FRESHWATER ICHNOFAUNAS 332
APPLICATIONS OF ICHNOLOGY IN SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF CONTINENTAL SUCCESSIONS 335
MARINE VS. NONMARINE 340
FRESHWATER ICHNOFAUNAS IN MARGINAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTS 341
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 341
References 341
CHAPTER 18. Traces of Gastropod Predation on Molluscan Prey in Tropical Reef Environments 349
INTRODUCTION 349
OVERVIEW OF POTENTIAL TRACE FOSSILS ATTRIBUTED TO PREDATORY REEF GASTROPODS 350
NOTE ON CLASSIFICATION, RANKING TREATMENT OF THE GASTROPOD GROUPS, AND OICHNUS 350
SHELL-DRILLING AND SHELL-RASPING FAMILIES AND THEIR POTENTIAL TRACE FOSSIL RECORD 350
GASTROPOD PREDATORS THAT WEDGE CHIP-AND-BREAK, AND ABRADE SHELLS 358
PREDATORY GASTROPODS THAT ENGULF PREY, PRODUCE TOXINS AND ACIDIC SECRETIONS, AND PROMOTE CORROSION OF THE SHELL OR SHELL BLISTERS 361
CONCLUSIONS 363
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 365
References 365
CHAPTER 19. Early History of Symbiosis in Living Substrates: Trace-Fossil Evidence from the Marine Record 370
INTRODUCTION 370
BIOCLAUSTRATIONS AS FOSSILIZED BEHAVIOR 371
CRITERIA FOR DISTINGUISHING BIOCLAUSTRATIONS 372
BIOCLAUSTRATIONS IN CONTEXT WITH OTHER SESSILE ASSOCIATIONS 374
EARLY FOSSIL RECORD OF BIOCLAUSTRATIONS 374
DIVERSITY TRENDS IN THE PALEOZOIC 376
CONCLUSIONS 379
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 379
References 379
CHAPTER 20. Macroborings and the Evolution of Marine Bioerosion 381
INTRODUCTION 381
COMMONLY BORED HARD SUBSTRATES 382
MOST COMMON MARINE MACROBORING TAXA 382
HISTORY OF MACROBORING THROUGH THE PHANEROZOIC 388
CONCLUSIONS 390
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 390
References 390
CHAPTER 21. Microborings and Microbial Endoliths: Geological Implications 393
INTRODUCTION 393
PREPARATION AND STUDY OF MICROBIAL ENDOLITHS AND MICROBORINGS 393
DIVERSITY AND GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MICROBIAL EUENDOLITHS 394
MICROBIAL ENDOLITHS AND MICROBORINGS IN THE FOSSIL RECORD 398
DISTRIBUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RANGES OF MICROBIAL ENDOLITHS 400
ICHNOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF MICROBORINGS 401
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PHOTOTROPHIC MICROBIAL EUENDOLITHS 403
CONCLUSIONS 403
FUTURE RESEARCH 403
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 404
References 404
CHAPTER 22. Stromatolites: A 3.5-Billion-Year Ichnologic Record 407
WHY STROMATOLITES ARE TRACE FOSSILS 407
THE COMPLEXITY OF FORM 407
MODELS OF FORMATION 408
HOW STROMATOLITES HAVE BEEN USED IN THE PAST AS TRACE FOSSILS 410
UTILITY AS TRACE FOSSILS 411
CONCLUSIONS 413
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 413
References 413
CHAPTER 23. Trace Fossils in Evolutionary Paleoecology 416
INTRODUCTION 416
EDIACARAN ECOSYSTEMS 417
THE CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION 419
THE ORDOVICIAN RADIATION 421
COLONIZATION OF BRACKISH WATER ENVIRONMENTS 423
CONTINENTAL ICHNOFAUNAS THROUGH THE PHANEROZOIC 425
CONCLUSIONS 428
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 428
References 428
SECTION III: ADVANCES, FRESH APPROACHES, AND NEW DIRECTIONS 436
CHAPTER 24. Importance and Usefulness of Trace Fossils and Bioturbation in Paleoceanography 438
INTRODUCTION 438
TRACE FOSSILS 439
BIOTURBATION 444
TECHNICAL USES OF TRACE FOSSILS IN GRAVITY AND PISTON CORES 448
CONCLUSIONS 450
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 451
References 451
CHAPTER 25. Theoretical and Experimental Ichnology of Mobile Foraging 453
INTRODUCTION 453
ICHNOFOSSILS: RECORDING BEHAVIOR 454
WHAT IS FORAGING? 455
FORAGING PHASES 455
CONTROLS ON FORAGING 456
RESOURCE DETECTION 457
MOVEMENT RELATED TO FORAGING 458
A MODEL FOR MOBILE FORAGING 459
TO ICHNOLOGY 463
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF TRACE FOSSILS 463
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 464
References 464
CHAPTER 26. Material Constraints on Infaunal Lifestyles: May the Persistent and Strong Forces be with You 467
INTRODUCTION 467
THE MATERIALS 470
THE PROCESSES 472
DISCUSSION 478
CONCLUSIONS 481
References 481
CHAPTER 27. Complex Trace Fossils 483
INTRODUCTION: WHAT ARE COMPLEX TRACE FOSSILS? 483
THE CONCEPT OF COMPLEXITY APPLIED TO BIOGENIC STRUCTURES 484
CLASSIFICATION 486
INTERPRETATION 487
CONCLUSIONS 488
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 490
References 490
CHAPTER 28. A Constructional Model for Zoophycos 491
INTRODUCTION 491
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS 491
CONSTRUCTION OF THE LAMINA 492
THE CONSTRUCTION OF LAMELLAE 494
CONSTRUCTION OF LOBES 498
CONCLUSIONS 501
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 501
References 501
CHAPTER 29. Arthropod Tracemakers of Nereites? Neoichnological Observations of Juvenile Limulids and their Paleoichnological Applications 503
INTRODUCTION 503
NEREITES AND ITS MAKERS: PREVIOUS HYPOTHESES 504
TRACES OF JUVENILE LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS: A NEOICHNOLOGICAL ANALOG FOR NEREITES 505
NEREITES AND ITS MAKERS RECONSIDERED 511
ONTOGENY AND ICHNODIVERSITY 513
CONCLUSIONS 513
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 513
References 513
CHAPTER 30. Macaronichnus isp. Associated with Piscichnus waitemata in the Miocene of Yonaguni-jima Island, Southwest Japan 517
INTRODUCTION 517
GEOLOGIC SETTING 518
PISCICHNUS WAITEMATA FILLED WITH MACARONICHNUS ISP. 519
DISCUSSION 523
CONCLUSIONS 525
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 525
References 525
CHAPTER 31. Meiobenthic Trace Fossils as Keys to the Taphonomic History of Shallow-Marine Epicontinental Carbonates 527
INTRODUCTION 527
LOCATION AND GEOLOGIC SETTING 528
SEDIMENTOLOGY 528
MATERIAL AND METHODS 535
BIOTURBATION ACTIVITY OF MACROSCOPIC BURROWERS 535
MEIOBENTHIC TRACE FOSSILS 536
PRESERVATION OF SOFT-BODIED MEIOBENTHOS 538
TAPHONOMIC HISTORY 539
TIDALITY IN THE EPICONTINENTAL GERMANIC BASIN? 540
CONCLUSIONS 540
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 541
References 541
CHAPTER 32. Ichnotaxonomic Review of Dendriniform Borings Attributed to Foraminiferans: Semidendrina igen. nov. 543
INTRODUCTION 543
HISTORY 543
THE DUAL NOMENCLATURE 544
DETAILS OF MORPHOLOGY 545
BIOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION 545
RECENT DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS 550
STRATIGRAPHIC RECORD 550
POSSIBLE PRECURSORS 551
CREATION OF A NEW ICHNOFAMILY, DENDRINIDAE 552
CONCLUSIONS 552
APPENDIX: SYSTEMATIC ICHNOLOGY 553
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 554
References 554
CHAPTER 33. Ecological and Evolutionary Controls on the Composition of Marine and Lake Ichnofacies 556
INTRODUCTION 556
SEILACHER’S MODEL OF CONTROL AND DISTRIBUTION OF BEHAVIOR: ICHNOFACIES 557
FACTORS CONTROLLING MARINE ICHNOFACIES 557
ECOLOGICALLY AND ICHNOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF LAKES 559
BENTHIC ANIMALS IN LAKES VS. THE OCEAN 561
COMPARISON OF MARINE VS. LACUSTRINE ICHNOFACIES 565
IMPLICATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE 566
CONCLUSIONS 567
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 567
References 567
CHAPTER 34. Trace Fossils in an Archaeological Context: Examples from Bison Skeletons, Texas, USA 570
INTRODUCTION 570
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTING AND PREVIOUS ANALYSES 571
APPROACH AND METHOD 572
ICHNOLOGY—ARCHITECTURAL AND SURFICIAL MORPHOLOGY, TRACEMAKER, AND DISCUSSION 572
INVERTEBRATE TRACES 572
HUMAN MODIFICATIONS 580
WEATHERED BONE 583
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 584
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 585
References 585
CHAPTER 35. Ichnofacies of an Ancient Erg: A Climatically Influenced Trace Fossil Association in the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, Southern Utah, USA 587
INTRODUCTION 587
GEOLOGIC SETTING 588
ORGANISM TRACES IN DUNES 589
TRACE FOSSILS 589
TRACE MAKERS 593
PALEOECOLOGIC INTERPRETATIONS 593
PALEOCLIMATIC IMPLICATIONS 594
ENTRADICHNUS ICHNOFACIES 595
CONCLUSIONS 597
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 598
References 598
CHAPTER 36. Endobenthic Response through Mass-Extinction Episodes: Predictive Models and Observed Patterns 600
INTRODUCTION 600
BACKGROUND 601
ENDOBENTHIC ECOSYSTEMS AND EXTINCTION 602
PREDICTIVE MODELS OF ENDOBENTHIC RESPONSE 604
OBSERVED ENDOBENTHIC RESPONSES ACROSS MASS-EXTINCTION INTERVALS 606
DISCUSSION—HYPOTHESIZED AND EMPIRICAL ENDOBENTHIC ECOSYSTEM RESPONSES COMPARED 617
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 619
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 619
References 620
Index 624