Introduction to Atmospheric Physics (eBook)

Front Cover 1
An Introduction to Atmosheric Physics 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Preface to Second Edition 12
Preface to First Edition 14
CHAPTER I. GRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS 16
1.1 Fundamental Concepts 19
1.2 Law of Universal Gravitation 20
1.3 Newton's Laws of Motion 21
1.4 The Earth's Gravitational Field 22
1.5 The Force of Gravity 23
1.6 Geopotential 25
1.7 Satellite Orbits 26
1.8 Hydrostatic Equation 27
1.9 Distribution of Sea Level Pressure 31
1.10 Gravitational Tides 33
List of Symbols 36
Problems 37
Solutions 37
General References 41
CHAPTER II. PROPERTIES OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES 42
2.1 Molecular Behavior of Gases 42
2.2 Composition of Air 43
2.3 Elementary Kinetic Theory 45
2.4 Equation of State of an Ideal Gas 47
2.5 The Velocity Distribution of Molecules 50
2.6 The Atmosphere in Equilibrium 54
2.7 Conservation of Mass 56
2.8 Conservation of Energy 57
2.9 First Law of Thermodynamics 59
2.10 Equipartition of Energy 61
2.11 Specific Heat 62
2.12 Entropy 64
2.13 Isentropic Processes and Potential Temperature 65
2.14 Static Stability 67
2.15 Thermodynamic Probability and Entropy 69
2.16 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Transfer Processes 74
2.17 Real Gases and Changes of Phase 82
2.18 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 86
2.19 The Moist Atmosphere 87
2.20 Saturation Adiabatic Processes 90
2.21 Distribution of Temperature and Water Vapor 94
List of Symbols 99
Problems 101
Solutions 103
General References 106
CHAPTER III. PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR OF CLOUD PARTICLES 107
Part I: Growth 107
3.1 Intermolecular Force and Surface Tension 107
3.2 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over a Curved Surface 109
3.3 Homogeneous Condensation 111
3.4 Condensation Nuclei and the Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over Solutions 111
3.5 Distribution and Properties of Aerosols 114
3.6 Growth of Droplets by Condensation 117
3.7 Growth of Droplets by Collision and Coalescence 121
3.8 Supercooling of Droplets 126
3.9 Ice Nuclei 127
3.10 Equilibrium Vapor Pressures over Ice and Water 128
3.11 Growth of Ice Particles 130
3.12 Structure of Ice Crystals 132
3.13 Precipitation 134
3.14 Artificial Cloud Modification 142
Part II: Electrical Charge Generation and Its Effects 145
3.15 Elementary Principles of Electricity 145
3.16 Origin and Distribution of Ions 147
3.17 Conductivity 149
3.18 Charge Generation and Separation in Clouds 152
3.19 The Lightning Discharge 156
3.20 The Mean Electric Field 158
List of Symbols 160
Problems 161
Solutions 162
General References 165
CHAPTER IV. ATMOSPHERIC MOTIONS 166
4.1 Atmospheric Forces 166
4.2 The Coriolis Force 168
4.3 The Equations of Motion 171
4.4 Applications of the Horizontal Equations of Motion 174
4.5 The Equations of Motion on a Constant Pressure Surface 183
4.6 Variation with Height of the Geostrophic Wind 185
4.7 The Circulation Theorems 187
4.8 The Vorticity Equation 191
4.9 Potential Vorticity and Its Conservation 193
4.10 Rossby Waves 197
4.11 Frictionally Driven Secondary Circulation 199
4.12 Vertical Convection 203
4.13 Waves on an Interface 205
4.14 Acoustic-Gravity Waves 209
List of Symbols 214
Problems 215
Solutions 217
General References 221
CHAPTER V. SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION 222
Part I: Principles of Radiative Transfer 222
5.1 Definition and Concepts 223
5.2 Absorption and Emission of Radiation 225
5.3 Theory of Black-Body Radiation 228
5.4 Characteristics of Black-Body Radiation 230
5.5 The Line Spectrum 232
Part II: Radiation outside the Atmosphere 234
5.6 The Sun 234
5.7 Determination of the Solar Constant 238
5.8 Short- and Long-Wave Radiation 240
5.9 Radiation Measurements from Satellites 241
5.10 Distribution of Solar Energy Intercepted by the Earth 245
Part III: Effects of Absorption and Emission 246
5.11 Absorption 246
5.12 The "Atmosphere Effect" 247
5.13 Transfer of Radiation between Two Parallel Surfaces 248
5.14 Transfer of Long-Wave Radiation in a Plane Stratified Atmosphere 249
5.15 Experimental Determination of Flux Emissivity 254
5.16 Divergence of Net Radiation 256
5.17 Direct Measurement of Flux Divergence 257
Part IV: Photochemical Processes 260
5.18 Dissociation of Oxygen 260
5.19 Effects of Trace Gases on Stratospheric Ozone 265
5.20 Photoionization 268
List of Symbols 270
Problems 271
Solutions 272
General References 275
CHAPTER VI. TRANSFER PROCESSES 276
Part I: Conduction and Turbulence 276
6.1 Energy Transfer near the Earth's Surface 276
6.2 Heat Conduction into the Earth 277
6.3 Turbulence 279
6.4 Fluxes of Heat, Water Vapor, and Momentum 281
6.5 The Mixing Length Concept and the Eddy Transfer Coefficients 284
Part II: The Boundary Layer 287
6.6 Transfer by Turbulence in the Adiabatic Atmosphere 287
6.7 Transfer by Turbulence in the Diabatic Atmosphere 290
6.8 The Planetary Boundary Layer 298
Part III: Applications 302
6.9 Practical Determination of the Fluxes near the Surface 302
6.10 Vertical Aerosol Distribution 307
6.11 Nocturnal Cooling 308
6.12 Fog Formation 310
6.13 Air Modification 314
6.14 Global Summary of Energy Transfer 320
6.15 Effects of Increasing Concentration of CO2 323
List of Symbols 325
Problems 327
Solutions 329
General References 334
CHAPTER VII. ATMOSPHERIC SIGNAL PHENOMENA 336
Part I: General Properties of Waves 336
7.1 Nature of Waves 336
7.2 Phase Speed 338
7.3 Electromagnetic Waves 341
7.4 Dispersion and Group Velocity 345
Part II: Scattering of Radiation 346
7.5 The Physical Concept 346
7.6 Complex Index of Refraction 348
7.7 Radiation Emitted by an Oscillating Dipole 352
7.8 Size Dependence 355
7.9 Diffraction 356
7.10 Refraction 360
Part Ill: Natural Signal Phenomena 364
7.11 Visibility 365
7.12 Airglow 367
7.13 Refraction of Light by Air 368
7.14 Refraction by Ice Crystals 373
7.15 Refraction by Water Drops 375
7.16 Naturally Occurring Atmospheric Radio Waves 377
7.17 Refraction of Sound Waves 379
Part IV: Remote Sensing 383
7.18 Absorption Techniques 386
7.19 Scattering Techniques 388
7.20 Refraction Techniques 397
7.21 Emission–Absorption Techniques 399
List of Symbols 407
Problems 409
Solutions 410
General References 412
APPENDIX I. MATHEMATICAL TOPICS 414
A. Partial Differentiation 414
B. Elementary Vector Operation 415
C. Taylor Series 418
D. The Total Differential 419
E. The Exact Differential 420
F. Gauss' Theorem 420
G. Stokes' Theorem 422
H. The Potential Function 423
I. Solid Angle 424
APPENDIX II. PHYSICAL TOPICS 426
A. Units and Dimensions 426
B. Significant Figures 427
C. Electromagnetic Conversion Table 428
D. Table of Physical Constants 428
E. Standard Atmospheres 430
Bibliography 432
Index 436