Oil Spill Science and Technology (eBook)

Front Cover 
1 
Oil Spill Science and Technology 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Preface 26
About the Contributors 28
Part I - 
34 
Chapter 1 Introduction 36
1.1 Introduction 36
1.2 A Word on the Frequency of Spills 37
Chapter 2 Spill Occurrences: A World Overview 40
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Executive Summary 41
2.3 Overview of Spill Occurrences 41
References 79
Part II - 
82 
Chapter 3 Introduction to Oil Chemistry and Properties 84
3.1 Introduction 84
3.2 The Composition of Oil 84
3.3 Properties of Oil 87
References 92
Part III - 
94 
Chapter 4 Measurement of Oil Physical Properties 96
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Bulk Properties of Crude Oil and Fuel Products 96
4.3 Hydrocarbon Groups 106
4.4 Quality Assurance and Control 110
4.5 Effects of Evaporative Weathering on Oil Bulk Properties 111
References 116
Appendix 4.1 118
Chapter 5 Introduction to Oil Chemical Analysis 120
5.1 Introduction 120
5.2 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 120
5.3 Chromatography 122
5.4 Identification and Forensic Analysis 129
5.5 Field Analysis 140
References 140
Chapter 6 Oil Spill Remote Sensing: A Review 144
6.1 Introduction 144
6.2 Visible Indications of Oil 145
6.3 Optical Sensors 147
6.4 Laser Fluorosensors 156
6.5 Microwave Sensors 157
6.6 Slick Thickness Determination 168
6.7 Acoustic Systems 172
6.8 Integrated Airborne Sensor Systems 172
6.9 Satellite Remote Sensing 173
6.10 Oil under Ice Detection 177
6.11 Underwater Detection and Tracking 178
6.12 Small Remote-controlled Aircraft 182
6.13 Real-time Displays and Printers 183
6.14 Routine Surveillance 183
6.15 Future Trends 186
6.16 Recommendations 187
References 191
Chapter 7 Laser Fluorosensors 204
7.1 Principles of Operation 204
7.2 Oil Classification 208
7.3 Existing Operational Units 212
7.4 Aircraft Requirements 213
7.5 Cost Estimates 215
7.6 Conclusions 215
References 215
Part IV - 
218 
Chapter 8 Introduction to Spill Modeling 220
8.1 Introduction 220
8.2 An Overview of Weathering 220
8.3 Movement of Oil and Oil Spill Modeling 229
References 232
Chapter 9 Evaporation Modeling 234
9.1 Introduction 234
9.2 Review of Theoretical Concepts 238
9.3 Development of New Diffusion-Regulated Models 245
9.4 Complexities to the Diffusion-Regulated Model 262
9.5 Use of Evaporation Equations in Spill Models 266
9.6 Comparison of Model Approaches 268
9.7 Summary 273
References 274
Chapter 10 Models for Water-in-Oil Emulsion Formation 276
10.1 Introduction 276
10.2 Early Modeling of Emulsification 282
10.3 First Two Model Developments 284
10.4 New Model Development 286
10.5 Development of an Emulsion Kinetics Estimator 293
10.6 Discussion 293
10.7 Conclusions 302
References 303
Chapter 11 Oil Spill Trajectory Forecasting Uncertainty and Emergency Response 308
11.1 Introduction: The Importance of Forecast Uncertainty 308
11.2 The Basics of Oil Spill Modeling 309
11.3 Trajectory Model Uncertainties 313
11.4 Trajectory Forecast Verification 325
11.5 Summary and Conclusions 328
References 330
Part V - 
334 
Chapter 12 Physical Spill Countermeasures 336
12.1 Containment on Water 336
12.2 Skimmers 348
12.3 Sorbents 358
12.4 Manual Recovery 362
12.5 Temporary Storage 363
12.6 Pumps 365
12.7 Separation 367
12.8 Disposal 368
References 370
Chapter 13 Weather Effects on Oil Spill Countermeasures 372
13.1 Introduction 372
13.2 Review of Literature on Spill Countermeasures and Weather 376
13.3 Development of Models for Effectiveness of Countermeasures 416
13.4 Overview of Weather Limitations 438
13.5 Summary and Conclusions 440
References 449
Part VI - 
460 
Chapter 14 Spill-Treating Agents 462
14.1 Introduction 462
14.2 Dispersants 462
14.3 Surface-Washing Agents 463
14.4 Emulsion Breakers and Inhibitors 463
14.5 Recovery Enhancers 464
14.6 Solidifiers 464
14.7 Sinking Agents 464
14.8 Biodegradation Agents 465
Chapter 15 Oil Spill Dispersants: A Technical Summary 468
15.1 Introduction 468
15.2 The Basic Physics and Chemistry of Dispersants 470
15.3 The Basic Nature of Dispersions or Oil-in-Water Emulsions 473
15.4 Effectiveness 484
15.5 Monitoring 514
15.6 Physical Studies 533
15.7 Toxicity 552
15.8 Biodegradation 568
15.9 Other Information 572
15.10 Summary and Conclusions 595
References 600
Chapter 16 A Practical Guide to Chemical Dispersion for Oil Spills 616
16.1 Introduction and Decision Making 616
16.2 How Dispersants Are Used 624
16.3 Safety and Postdispersion Actions 631
Additional Information 634
Appendix A Specific Spill Scenarios and Dispersion Strategies 636
Appendix B Nomograms to Calculate Spreading and Viscosity with Time 638
Chapter 17 Procedures for the Testing and 
 
 
 
 
 
644 
17.1 Background and Introduction 644
17.2 Toxicity Testing Procedures 646
17.3 Test Description 648
17.4 Testing with Heavy Fuel Oils 652
17.5 The 2007 UK Scheme Review 653
17.6 Conclusions 659
References 660
Chapter 18 Formulation Changes in Oil Spill Dispersants: Are They Toxicologically Significant? 662
18.1 Introduction 662
18.2 Materials and Methods 663
18.3 Results 666
18.4 Discussion 671
References 675
Chapter 19 Environment Canada's Methods for Assessing Oil Spill Treating Agents 676
19.1 Introduction 676
19.2 Toxicity and Effectiveness of Treating Agents for Oil Spills 678
19.3 Approval for Use of Treating Agents in Canadian Waters 695
19.4 Challenges to Current Toxicity Test Protocols 695
19.5 Conclusions 699
References 700
Chapter 20 The United States Environmental Protection Agency: National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, Subpart J Product Schedule (40 Code of Federal Regulations 300.900) 
706 
20.1 Introduction 706
20.2 Why Is There a Product Schedule? 707
20.3 Authorities for a Product Schedule 708
20.4 Information Requested from Manufacturers 708
20.5 Agency Activities 712
20.6 Practical Utility of the Data 712
20.7 Authorities for Use 713
20.8 Federal Agencies’ Role within the Regional Response Team 713
20.9 Does Listing Mean the Environmental Protection Agency Approves and Endorses a Product? 714
20.10 Conclusions 715
References 715
Chapter 21 Surface-Washing Agents or Beach Cleaners 716
21.1 Introduction to Surface-Washing Agents 716
21.2 Review of Major Surface-Washing Agent Issues 719
21.3 Other Issues 730
References 737
Appendix 21.1 Environment Canada's Test Method 33,39 740
EPA Draft Protocol35,36,51 742
Chapter 22 Review of Solidifiers 746
22.1 Introduction to Solidifiers 746
22.2 Review of Major Solidifier Issues 750
22.3 Other Issues 761
22.4 Summary 763
References 764
Appendix 22.1 Testing Procedures from Environment Canada 765
Brief Description of the Test 766
Equipment and Supplies 766
Calculation 766
Part VII - 
768 
Chapter 23 An Overview of In-Situ Burning 770
23.1 Introduction 770
23.2 An Overview of in-situ Burning 770
23.3 Assessment of Feasibility of Burning 791
23.4 Equipment—Selection, Deployment, and Operation 844
23.5. Possible Spill Situations 891
23.6 Post-burn Actions 903
23.7 Health and Safety Precautions during Burning 911
References 927
Part VIII - 
938 
Chapter 24 Shoreline Countermeasures 940
24.1 Introduction 940
24.2 Shoreline Treatment Decision Process 943
24.3 Treatment Options 945
24.4 Treatment by Shore Type 949
24.5 Waste Generation 952
References 953
Chapter 25 Automated Assessment and Data Management 956
25.1 Introduction 956
25.2 Automated Processing and Data Management: Goals and Definition 957
25.3 Shoreline Observations Data Processing 962
25.4 Assessment Automation Methods and Tools 972
25.5 Shoreline Assessment Data Management Issues 981
References 988
Part IX - 
990 
Chapter 26 Submerged Oil 992
26.1 Introduction 992
26.2 Submerged Oil Characteristics 994
26.3 Review of Recent Submerged Oil Spills 998
26.4 Submerged Oil Spill Response Methods and Recommendations for Future Work 1008
References 1014
Part X - 
1016 
Chapter 27 Effects of Oil in the Environment 1018
27.1 Introduction 1018
27.2 Some Definitions 1020
27.3 Size Matters: Seeps vs. Spills 1022
27.4 An “Equation” to Convey Toxic Impact 1024
27.5 Route of Exposure: The Anthrax Example 1032
27.6 Route of Exposure: Oil 1033
27.7 Oil Chemistry, Physical Behavior, and Oil Effects 1036
27.8 Freshwater/Saltwater Differences 1041
27.9 Tropical Environments 1043
27.10 Arctic Environments 1046
27.11 Ecological Effects of Oil Spills 1047
27.12 The Future of Oil Effects Science 1050
27.13 Summary and Conclusions 1052
References 1053
Part XI - 
1058 
Chapter 28 Introduction to Oil Spill Contingency Planning and Response Initiation 1060
28.1 An Overview of Response to Oil Spills 1060
28.2 Activation of Contingency Plans 1061
28.3 Training 1062
28.4 Structure of Response Organizations 1063
28.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives 1063
28.6 Private and Government Response Organizations 1064
Chapter 29 The Role of the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited 1066
Additional Information 1068
Chapter 30 Safety Issues at Spills 1070
30.1 Introduction 1070
30.2 Organization Structure 1070
30.3 Health and Safety Risk Analysis/Risk Assessment 1071
30.4 Air Monitoring 1071
30.5 Site Safety and Health Plan 1076
30.6 Different Types of Hazards on Site 1081
30.7 Recommended Safety Procedures 1082
30.8 Emergency Procedures During a Response 1087
30.9 Other Issues 1092
30.10 Conclusion 1095
References 1095
Part XII - 
1098 
Chapter 31 Natural Resource Damage Assessment 1100
31.1 Introduction 1100
31.2 Regulatory Regimes 1100
31.3 Objectives 1102
31.4 Making the Public Whole 1103
31.5 Alternative Sites 1108
31.6 Use of Models 1109
31.7 The NRDA Process in the United States 1110
Acronyms 1114
References 1115
Chapter 32 Seafood Safety and Oil Spills 1116
32.1 Introduction 1116
32.2 Seafood Exposure to Oil 1118
32.3 Spill Response and Seafood Safety Management 1120
32.4 Seafood Safety Assessment: Reopening a Closed Fishery 1123
32.5 Chemical Analytical Evaluation 1123
32.6 Seafood Sensory Evaluation 1125
32.7 Trends in Lifting Fishery Bans 1129
32.8 Long-term Implications of Oil Spills on Seafood 1131
References 1132
Part XIII - Specific Case Studies 
1134 
Chapter 33 The Torrey Canyon Oil Spill, 1967 1136
33.1 Case Study 1136
References 1138
Chapter 34 The Ekofisk Bravo Blowout, 1977 1140
34.1 Case Study 1140
References 1141
Chapter 35 The Sea Empress Oil Spill, 1996 1142
35.1 Introduction 1142
35.2 Mechanical Recovery at Sea 1143
35.3 Dispersant Spraying at Sea 1144
35.4 Shoreline Cleanup 1145
35.5 Dispersant Use on Beaches 1146
35.6 Impacts on Seabirds 1146
35.7 Mortalities of Fish and Shellfish 1146
35.8 Effects on Fish and Shellfish Stocks and Plankton 1147
35.9 Contamination of Fish and Shellfish 1147
35.10 Removal of Fishery Restrictions 1148
35.11 Conclusion 1149
References 1149
Chapter 36 The Braer Oil Spill, 1993 1152
36.1 Introduction 1152
36.2 At-Sea and Shoreline Response 1152
36.3 Fate of the Braer Oil 1154
36.4 Impacts of the Braer Oil 1154
36.5 Conclusion 1158
References 1159
Chapter 37 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill 1160
37.1 Review of the Spill 1160
References 1164
Chapter 38 Tanker SOLAR 1 Oil Spill, Guimaras, Philippines: Impacts and Response Challenges 1166
38.1 Incident Summary 1166
38.2 Impact Summary 1167
38.3 Shoreline Cleanup 1172
38.4 Mangrove Cleanup and Recovery 1176
38.5 Fisheries Impacts and Health Concerns 1177
38.6 Summary 1178
Disclaimer 1179
References 1179
Conversions 1180
Index 1182