Vacuum Ultraviolet Spectroscopy (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Vacuum Ultraviolet Spectroscopy II 2
Copyright Page 3
Contents 4
Contributors 9
Chapter 1. Normal-Incidence Monochromators and Spectrometers 10
1.1. Concave Grating Monochromators and Spectrometers 10
1.2. Plane Grating Monochromators and Spectrometers 26
References 28
Chapter 2. Grazing-Incidence Monochromators for Third-Generation Synchrotron Radiation Sources 30
2.1. Introduction 30
2.2. Grating Theory 32
2.3. Application of Aberration Theory to the Design of an Undulator-Based SGM 42
2.4. Focusing in Variable-Included-Angle Monochromators 52
2.5. Diffraction Efficiency 55
2.6. An Optimized Beam Line for Microscopy by Photoelectron Emission Microscopy and Micro-X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 56
References 61
Chapter 3. Spectrographs and Monochromators Using Varied Line Spacing Gratings 64
3.1. Limitations of Uniformly Spaced Grating Instruments 64
3.2. Paraxial Focusing Equations for VLS Gratings 65
3.3. Harada-Style Focusing 67
3.4. Hettrick-Style Focusing 69
3.5. Flat Field Spectrographs and Spectrometers 71
3.6. Light Path Function for a System of a Mirror and a VLS Grating 74
3.7. Monochromators for Synchrotron Radiation 75
3.8. Holographically Recorded Gratings 79
3.9. Conclusions 79
References 79
Chapter 4. Interferometric Spectrometers 82
4.1. Introduction 82
4.2. Fabry–Perot Interferometry 86
4.3. Fourier Transform Spectrometry: Principal Features 89
4.4. Fourier Transform Spectrometry in Practice in the VUV 96
4.5. Spatially Heterodyned, Nonscanning Interferometers for FTS 102
4.6. All-Reflection FT Spectrometers 106
4.7. Soft X-Ray FTS by Grazing Reflection 108
References 114
Chapter 5. Gas Detectors 116
5. I. Ionization Chambers 116
5.2. Proportional Counters 121
References 124
Chapter 6. Photodiode Detectors 126
6.1. Introduction 126
6.2. Radiometric Standards 127
6.3. Photodiode Types 128
6.4. Proper Use of Photodiodes in the VUV 143
References 146
Chapter 7. Amplifying and Position Sensitive Detectors 148
7.1. Photon Detection 148
7.2. Amplifying Detectors 157
7.3. Position Sensing Techniques 171
References 181
Chapter 8. Absolute Flux Measurements 186
8.1. Introduction 186
8.2. Primary Radiator Radiometry 187
8.3. Primary Detector Radiometry 188
8.4. Transfer Detector Standards for Absolute Flux Measurement 195
8.5. Conclusion 198
References 199
Chapter 9. Vacuum Techniques 202
9.1. Introduction 202
9.2. Design of the Vacuum Environment 202
9.3. Leak Detection 209
9.4. Optics Cleaning 211
References 212
Chapter 10. Lithography 214
10.1. Integrated Circuit Fabrication and Lithographic Process 214
10.2. Photoresist in Lithography 215
10.3. Optical Lithography 217
10.4. X-Ray Lithography 223
References 230
Chapter 11. X-Ray Spectromicroscopy 234
11.1. Introduction 234
11.2. X-Ray Spectromicroscopy Approaches 239
11.3. Applications 248
11.4. Discussion 265
11.5. Conclusions 266
References 267
Chapter 12. Optical Spectroscopy in the VUV Region 272
12.1. Introduction 272
12.2. Wavelength Measurements and Energy Levels 274
12.3. Intensity Measurements and Cross Sections 279
References 284
Chapter 13. Soft X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy 288
13.1. Introduction 288
13.2. Characteristics of the Soft X-Ray Fluorescence Spectra of Solids 291
13.3. Instrumentation for SXF Spectroscopy 302
13.4. Survey of Recent SXF Spectroscopy Research 306
References 307
Index 310