Front Cover 1
Generating Electricity in a Carbon-Constrained World 2
Copyright 3
Contents 4
Dedication 8
Foreword 10
Preface 12
Reducing the Carbon Footprint: A Multidimensional Problem 12
The technical dimension 12
The economic dimension 14
The social dimension 15
The political dimension 15
References 16
About the Contributors 18
Introduction 34
Carbon Constrained: The Future of Electricity Generation 34
Historical context 34
The carbon problem in context 35
Objectives of the book 38
The organization of this book 39
Part 1: The Carbon Challenge 48
Chapter 1: Stabilizing World CO2 Emissions: A Bridge Too Far? 50
1.1 Introduction 51
1.2 The magnitude of the task 53
1.3 Achieving global emission reductions 59
1.4 Paths to emission reductions 68
1.5 Conclusion 72
Chapter 2: Carbon Policies: 
 
78 
2.1 Introduction 79
2.2 Options for CO2 emission reduction 80
2.3 An electricity market model with carbon policy 83
2.4 Simulation results 93
2.5 Conclusion 100
References 101
Chapter 3: Emerging Carbon Markets and Fundamentals of Tradable Permits 104
3.1 Introduction 105
3.2 Carbon market size 105
3.3 Cap-and-trade schemes 108
3.4 New environmental markets 112
3.5 Market oversight 118
3.6 Market registries and tracking systems 123
3.7 Conclusion 129
References 130
Chapter 4: Making It 
 
 
134 
4.1 Introduction 135
4.2 Basic features of a national carbon allowance scheme 137
4.3 U.K. case study 142
4.4 Danish case study 147
4.5 Conclusion 151
Acknowledgments 152
References 153
Chapter 5: Addressing Climate 
 
 
156 
5.1 Introduction 157
5.2 The pros and cons of local and global scales 158
5.3 A policy framework for blending local and global scales 163
5.4 Conclusion 167
References 169
Part 2: The Solutions 172
Chapter 6: Eliminating CO2 Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 174
6.1 Introduction 175
6.2 The basics of carbon capture and storage 178
6.3 Carbon capture technologies: Retrofit options for coal-fired power plants 181
6.4 Integrated CO2 capture designs 199
6.5 The zero-emission concept 208
6.6 Carbon storage options 209
6.7 Conclusion 213
References 215
Chapter 7: The Role of Nuclear Power in Climate Change Mitigation 222
7.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and nuclear power 223
7.2 The cost of nuclear power 230
7.3 Nuclear's critical growth regions 232
7.4 Nuclear power's impact on GHG emissions 244
7.5 Conclusion 251
References 252
Chapter 8: Barriers and Policy Solutions to Energy Efficiency as a Carbon Emissions Reduction Strategy 254
8.1 Introduction 255
8.2 The magnitude of the energy efficiency resource 256
8.3 Integration of energy efficiency into climate change mitigation policies 261
8.4 Policies and programs to overcome barriers and market imperfections 270
8.5 Conclusion 285
Chapter 9: Wind Power: How 
 
288 
9.1 Introduction 289
9.2 The global wind power market 291
9.3 Twenty percent wind electricity by 2030 299
9.4 The potential global role of wind power 308
9.5 Conclusion 312
Acknowledgments 313
References 313
Chapter 10: Solar Energy: The Largest 
318 
10.1 Introduction 319
10.2 Solar resource and conversion technologies 320
10.3 Solar technology cost and market trends 332
10.4 High penetration limits 342
10.5 Potential for mitigating carbon emissions 346
10.6 Conclusion 347
References 348
Chapter 11: Geothermal Power: The 
 
350 
11.1 Introduction 351
11.2 Geothermal power from naturally occurring reservoirs 352
11.3 Geothermal in the United States 357
11.4 Engineered geothermal systems: manmade reservoirs 360
11.5 Conclusion 365
References 366
Chapter 12: Hydroelectricity: Future Potential 
370 
12.1 Introduction 371
12.2 Current use and potential of hydropower 372
12.3 Barriers to future development of hydro resources 381
12.4 Overcoming barriers to future hydro development 385
12.5 GHG emissions associated with hydropower 388
12.6 Conclusion 390
Dedication 390
References 391
Part 3: Case Studies 392
Chapter 13: Ontario: The Road 
 
 
394 
13.1 Introduction 395
13.2 The setting in Ontario 397
13.3 The evolution of the coal-replacement policy 399
13.4 The coal-replacement plan 403
13.5 Stakeholder assessments of the phase-out strategy 405
13.6 Challenges with the phase-out strategy 408
13.7 Conclusion 411
References 413
Chapter 14: Kicking the Fossil-Fuel Habit: New 
 
 
416 
14.1 Background: NZ energy policy and its context 417
14.2 Historical development of the New Zealand system 419
14.3 Integrating renewables 425
14.4 Norway and Iceland as models 430
14.5 Modeling the future NZ portfolio 434
14.6 Evaluating the current policy 449
14.7 Conclusion 451
References 453
Chapter 15: Carrots and Sticks: Will the British 
 
 
456 
15.1 Introduction 457
15.2 Context 458
15.3 Incentives, obligations, and responses to climate change 469
15.4 Conclusion 494
References 497
Chapter 16: CO2 Regulations: The View of a 
 
498 
16.1 Introduction 499
16.2 Improving ETS market design for massive deployment of mature low-emitting technologies 504
16.3 Choosing complementary tools for public policymaking 507
16.4 ETS from an international perspective 515
16.5 Conclusion 518
References 518
Chapter 17: Low-Carbon Electricity Development in China: Opportunities and 
520 
17.1 Introduction 521
17.2 China's power sector 522
17.3 Power sector emissions 528
17.4 Decarbonizing China's power sector 530
17.5 Conclusion 545
References 545
Chapter 18: California Dreaming: The 
 
 
 
548 
18.1 Introduction 549
18.2 Southern California Edison's fuel mix 555
18.3 A brief description of cap and trade for California 557
18.4 What this means for SCE ratepayers 571
18.5 Conclusion 573
Chapter 19: RTOs, Regional Electricity Markets, and Climate Policy 574
19.1 Introduction 575
19.2 Alternative GHG policy instruments and implications for RTO functions 578
19.3 Implications of GHG policy for power system operations 587
19.4 Implications of GHG policy for design of RTO spot markets 591
19.5 Implications of GHG policy for resource adequacy 596
19.6 Implications of GHG policy for transmission policy and planning 600
19.7 Conclusion 606
Acknowledgment 607
References 608
Epilogue: Two Surprises 
612 
Index 614