Global Biogeochemical Cycles in the Climate System (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 4
Contributors 12
Foreword 14
Preface 16
Part 1: Introduction 22
Chapter 1. Uncertainties of Global Biogeochemical Predictions 24
1.1 Introduction 24
1.2 The IGBP Transect Approach 24
1.3 Variability in Processes 27
1.4 Biome Approach and Functional Types 31
1.5 New Approaches to Functional Diversity 31
1.6 Conclusions 33
References 35
Chapter 2. Uncertainties of Global Climate Predictions, 36
2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 Observational Evidence 37
2.3 Physical Rationale 38
2.4 Response to Forcing of the Climate System 41
2.5 Results from Climate Change Prediction Experiments 44
2.6 Summary and Conclusions 47
References 48
Chapter 3. Uncertainties in the Atmospheric Chemical System, 52
3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 Synthetic View of Chemical Processes in the Troposphere 53
3.3 The IMAGES Model 54
3.4 Changes in the Chemical Composition of the Global Troposphere 54
3.5 Concluding Remarks 60
References 60
Chapter 4. Inferring Biogeochemical Sources and Sinks from Atmospheric Concentrations: General Consideration and Applications in Vegetation Canopies 62
4.1 Introduction 62
4.2 Scalar and Isotopic Molar Balances 64
4.3 Inverse Methods for Inferring Scalar Sources and Sinks in Canopies 68
4.4 Inverse Methods and Isotopes in Canopies 74
4.5 Summary and Conclusions 76
Appendix A 78
Appendix B 78
References 79
Chapter 5. Biogeophysical Feedbacks and the Dynamics of Climate 82
5.1 Introduction 82
5.2 Synergisms 83
5.3 Multiple Equilibria 85
5.4 Transient Interaction 87
5.5 Perspectives 88
References 90
Chapter 6. Land–Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions and Monsoon Climate Change: A Paleo–Perspective 94
6.1 Introduction 94
6.2 Response of the Monsoon to Orbital Forcing 96
6.3 Ocean Feedbacks on the Monsoon 97
6.4 Land-Surface Feedbacks on the Monsoon 98
6.5 Synergies between the Land, Ocean and Atmosphere 102
6.6 The Role of Climate Variability 102
6.7 Final Remarks 104
References 104
Chapter 7. Paleobiogeochemistry 108
7.1 Introduction 108
7.2 Methane 110
7.3 Carbon Dioxide 110
7.4 Mineral Dust Aerosol 111
7.5 Scientific Challenges Posed by the Ice-Core Records 112
7.6 Towards an Integrated Research Strategy for Palaeobiogeochemistry 113
References 114
Chapter 8. Should Phosphorus Availability Be Constraining Moist Tropical Forest Responses to Increasing CO2 Concentrations? 116
8.1 Introduction 117
8.2 Phosphorus in the Soils of the Moist Tropics 117
8.3 States and Fluxes of Phosphorus in Moist Tropical Forests 119
8.4 Linking the Phosphorus and Carbon Cycles 124
References 130
Chapter 9. Trees in Grasslands: Biogeochemical Consequences of Woody Plant Expansion 136
9.1 Introduction 136
9.2 Woody Plant Encroachment in Grasslands and Savannas 137
9.3 The La Copita Case Study 139
9.4 Degradation: Ecological Versus Socioeconomic 148
9.5 Implications for Ecosystem and Natural Resources Management 149
9.6 Summary 150
References 151
Chapter 10. Biogeochemistry in the Arctic: Patterns, Processes and Controls 160
10.1 Introduction 160
10.2 Tundra Organic Matter 160
10.3 Tundra Nutrients 163
10.4 Biogeochemical Responses to Experimental Ecosystem Manipulations 166
10.5 Summary 169
References 169
Chapter 11. Evaporation in the Boreal Zone During Summer„Physics and Vegetation 172
11.1 Introduction 172
11.2 Climate and Soil Water 173
11.3 Evaporation Theory 177
11.4 Evaporation During Summer and Rainfall 179
11.5 Forest Evaporation, Tree Life Form and Nitrogen 181
11.6 Conclusions 183
References 184
Chapter 12 Past and Future Forest Response to Rapid Climate Change 188
12.1 Introduction 188
12.2 Long-Distance Dispersal 189
12.3 Estimating Jump Distances 191
12.4 Interactions with Resident Vegetation - Constraints on Establishment 192
12.5 Interactions with Resident Vegetation - Competition for Light and Resulting Constraints on Population Growth 193
12.6 Conclusions 194
References 195
Chapter 13. Biogeochemical Models: Implicit vs. Explicit Microbiology 198
13.1 Introduction 198
13.2 Microbiology in Biogeochemical Models 198
13.3 Dealing with Microbial Diversity in Models 199
13.4 Kinetic Effects of Microbial Population Size 199
13.5 Microbial Recovery from Stress 201
13.6 Conclusions 202
References 203
Chapter 14. The Global Soil Organic Carbon Pool 206
14.1 Introduction: the Soil Carbon Pool and Global Change 206
14.2 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Soil Organic Carbon 207
14.3 Global Variations in the SOC Pool 208
14.4 The Limitations of Available Observational SOC Data 211
14.5 A Stratified Sampling Approach 212
14.6 Conclusions: Sandworld and Clayworld 218
References 218
Chapter 15. Plant Compounds and Their Turnover and Stability as Soil Organic Matter 222
15.1 Introduction 222
15.2 Pathways of Soil Organic Matter Formation 222
15.3 Stabilization of Soil Organic Matter 229
15.4 Turnover of Soil Organic Matter 232
15.5 Conclusion 234
References 234
Chapter 16. Input/Output Balances and Nitrogen Limitation in Terrestrial Ecosystems 238
16.1 Abstract 238
16.2 Long-term Nutrient Limitation 239
16.3 A Simple Model 240
16.4 Pathways of N Loss 240
16.5 Constraints to N Fixation 243
16.6 Conclusions 243
References 244
Chapter 17. Interactions Between Hillslope Hydrochemistry, Nitrogen Dynamics and Plants in Fennoscandian Boreal Forest 248
17.1 Introduction 248
17.2 A Historical Perspective 248
17.3 Nitrogen Supply and Forest Productivity in a Landscape Perspective: Hypotheses 249
17.4 Interactions Between Hydrochemistry, N Dynamics and Plants at Betsele – a Model System 251
17.5 Experimental Evidence 252
17.6 Conclusions 253
References 253
Chapter 18. The Cycle of Atmospheric Molecular Oxygen and its Isotopes 256
18.1 Introduction 256
18.2 Molecular Atmospheric Oxygen 256
18.3 The Stable Isotopes of Oxygen 261
18.4 Integrative Research Approach 263
References 264
Chapter 19. Constraining the Global Carbon Budget from Global to Regional Scales - the Measurement Challenge 266
19.1 Introduction 266
19.2 Present Status of Global C-Models 266
19.3 Global CO2-Measurements 268
19.4 The Global CO2-Measuring Network 270
References 273
Chapter 20. Carbon Isotope Discrimination of Terrestrial Ecosystems - How Well do Observed and Modeled Results Match? 274
20.1 Introduction 274
20.2 Experimental and Analytical Methods 276
20.3 Description of the Model 276
20.4 13C Signature of Ecosystem Respiration 277
20.5 Modeled Ecosystem Carbon Discrimination 279
20.6 Comparison of Observed and Modeled De Estimates 280
20.7 Ecophysiological Information of .e 282
20.8 Conclusions 283
References 286
Chapter 21. Photosynthetic Pathways and Climate 288
21.1 Introduction 288
21.2 A Physiological Basis for C3/C4 Plant Distributions 289
21.3 A Brief History of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels 289
21.4 Recognizing the Presence of C3 and C4 Ecosystems in the Paleorecord 290
21.5 The Global Expansion of C4 Ecosystems 291
21.6 C3/C4 Dynamics During Glacial-Interglacial Periods 293
21.7 Photosynthetic Pathway Distribution in The Modern World 295
21.8 Photosynthetic Pathway Impacts Herbivores 295
21.9 Summary 296
References 297
Chapter 22. Biological Diversity, Evolution and Biogeochemistry 300
22.1 What Do We Have and What Are We Losing? 300
22.2 Do Species Losses Matter for Biogeochemical Cycling? 300
22.3 Kinds of Diversity 301
22.4 The Evolution of Functional Diversity 302
22.5 Cellulose 302
22.6 Evolution of Polyphenolic Compounds 302
22.7 The Build Up of Carbon and Evolution of Decomposers 303
22.8 Analysis of the Role of Diversity and Biogeochemistry 304
22.10 Summary 304
References 304
Chapter 23 Atmospheric Perspectives on the Ocean Carbon Cycle 306
23.1 Introduction 306
23.2 Long-term Mean Ocean Uptake 306
23.3 Interannual Variability 311
23.4 Summary and Conclusions 314
References 314
Chapter 24 International Instruments for the Protection of the Climate and Their National Implementation 316
24.1 Introduction 316
24.2 Commitments of States Parties Under the Climate Change Regime 316
24.3 Implementation Measures 318
24.4 Monitoring Compliance and Enforcement 320
24.5 The Kyoto Protocol as a Learning Treaty 321
24.6 Conclusions 321
Chapter 25. A New Tool to Characterizing and Managing Risks 324
25.1 Introduction 324
25.2 Risk Evaluation and Risk Classification 325
25.3 Risk Management 327
25.4 Application to Environmental Risks of Substances 331
25.5 Some Conclusions for a Deliberative Process 335
References 335
Chapter 26. Contrasting Approaches: The Ozone Layer, Climate Change and Resolving The Kyoto Dilemma 338
26.1 Introduction: Apples and Oranges? 338
26.2 Montreal: An Unlikely Success Story 339
26.3 Lessons From The Ozone Layer 340
26.4 Climate Change: The Road to Rio 341
26.5 The Framework Convention on Climate Change 342
26.6 Tortuous Targets in Kyoto 343
26.7 When Will the Kyoto Protocol Enter Into Force? 345
26.8 Unlearned Lessons 346
26.9 Time To Move on: A longer Term Perspective 347
26.10 A Technology-based Strategy For The Future: Eight Points For Action 349
References 351
Chapter 27. Optimizing Long-Term Climate Management 354
27.1 Introduction 354
27.2 Global Environment and Society Models 354
27.3 Impulse-Response Climate Models 356
27.4 Optimizing CO2 Emissions 360
27.5 Conclusions 363
References 363
Subject Index 366