Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes (eBook)

Cover 1
Table of Contents 6
Foreword 16
Acknowledgments 18
Chapter 1: Generalities 19
1.1 Units and Constants 19
1.2 Energy and Utility 20
1.3 Conservation of Energy 21
1.4 Planetary Energy Balance 22
1.5 The Energy Utilization Rate 23
1.6 The Population Explosion 26
1.7 The Market Penetration Function 27
1.8 Planetary Energy Resources 31
1.9 Energy Utilization 34
1.10 The Ecology Question 37
1.11 Nuclear Energy 40
1.12 Financing 55
References 57
Problems 59
Part I: Heat Engines 69
Chapter 2: A Minimum of Thermodynamics and of Kinetic Theory of Gases 71
2.1 The Motion of Molecules 71
2.2 Temperature 71
2.3 The Perfect-Gas Law 72
2.4 Internal Energy 73
2.5 Specific Heat at Constant Volume 73
2.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics 74
2.7 The Pressure-Volume Work 75
2.8 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure 75
2.9 Adiabatic Processes 76
2.10 Isothermal Processes 83
2.11 Functions of State 85
2.12 Enthalpy 86
2.13 Degrees of Freedom 87
2.14 Entropy 89
2.15 Reversibility 91
2.16 Negentropy 94
2.17 How to Plot Statistics 95
2.18 Maxwellian Distribution 96
2.19 Fermi-Dirac Distribution 99
2.20 Boltzmann's Law 101
Appendix (Symbology) 103
Problems 104
Chapter 3: Mechanical Heat Engines 107
3.1 Heats of Combustion 107
3.2 Carnot Efficiency 110
3.3 Engine Types 111
3.4 Efficiency of an Otto Engine 115
3.5 Gasoline 119
3.6 Knocking 119
3.7 Hybrid Engines for Automobiles 123
3.8 The Stirling Engine 124
3.9 The Implementation of the Stirling Engine 129
3.10 Cryogenic Engines 131
References 134
Problems 135
Chapter 4: Ocean Thermal Energy Converters 143
4.1 Introduction 143
4.2 OTEC Configurations 144
4.3 Turbines 146
4.4 OTEC Efficiency 148
4.5 Example of OTEC Design 149
4.6 Heat Exchangers 151
4.7 Siting 152
References 153
Problems 154
Chapter 5: Thermoelectricity 157
5.1 Experimental Observations 157
5.2 Thermoelectric Thermometers 162
5.3 The Thermoelectric Generator 164
5.4 Figure of Merit of a Material 167
5.5 The Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz Law 168
5.6 Thermal Conductivity in Solids 172
5.7 Seebeck Coefficient of Semiconductors 173
5.8 Performance of Thermoelectric Materials 174
5.9 Some Applications of Thermoelectric Generators 176
5.10 Design of a Thermoelectric Generator 178
5.11 Thermoelectric Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 181
5.12 Temperature dependence 188
5.13 Battery Architecture 189
5.14 The Physics of Thermoelectricity 189
5.15 Direction and Signs 199
Appendix 201
References 202
Problems 203
Chapter 6: Thermionics 217
6.1 Introduction 217
6.2 Thermionic Emission 219
6.3 Electron Transport 222
6.4 Lossless Diodes with Space Charge Neutralization 228
6.5 Losses in Vacuum-Diodes with no Space Charge 232
6.6 Real Vacuum-Diodes 238
6.7 Vapor-Diodes 239
6.8 High-Pressure Diodes 250
References 253
Problems 254
Chapter 7: AMTEC 259
7.1 Operating Principle 259
7.2 Vapor Pressure 261
7.3 Pressure Drop in the Sodium Vapor Column 262
7.4 The Mean Free Path of Sodium Ions 264
7.5 V -I Characteristics of an AMTEC 265
7.6 Efficiency 267
7.7 Thermodynamics of an AMTEC 270
References 272
Chapter 8: Radio-Noise Generators 273
References 277
Part II: The World of Hydrogen 279
Chapter 9: Fuel Cells 281
9.1 Introduction 281
9.2 Electrochemical Cells 282
9.3 Fuel Cell Classification 286
9.4 Fuel Cell Reactions 288
9.5 Typical Fuel Cell Configurations 292
9.6 Fuel Cell Applications 317
9.7 The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells 321
9.8 Performance of Real Fuel Cells 337
References 354
Problems 356
Chapter 10: Hydrogen Production 371
10.1 Generalities 371
10.2 Chemical Production of Hydrogen 373
10.3 Electrolytic Hydrogen 386
10.4 Thermolytic Hydrogen 395
10.5 Photolytic Hydrogen 403
10.6 Photobiological Hydrogen Production 405
References 407
Problems 408
Chapter 11: Hydrogen Storage 415
11.1 Compressed Gas 417
11.2 Cryogenic Hydrogen 419
11.3 Storage of Hydrogen by Adsorption 421
11.4 Storage of Hydrogen in Chemical Compounds 422
11.5 Hydride Hydrogen Compessors 439
11.6 Hydride Heat Pumps 443
References 446
Problems 447
Part III: Energy from the Sun 461
Chapter 12: Solar Radiation 463
12.1 The Nature of the Solar Radiation 463
12.2 Insolation 466
12.3 Solar Collectors 473
12.4 Some Solar Plant Configurations 480
Appendix A (The Measurement of Time) 484
Appendix B (Orbital Mechanics) 488
References 501
Problems 502
Chapter 13: Biomass 511
13.1 Introduction 511
13.2 The Composition of Biomass 511
13.3 Biomass as Fuel 516
13.4 Photosynthesis 531
References 538
Problems 539
Chapter 14: Photovoltaic Converters 543
14.1 Introduction 543
14.2 Theoretical Efficiency 548
14.3 Carrier Multiplication 555
14.4 Spectrally Selective Beam Splitting 556
14.5 Thermo-photovoltaic Cells 559
14.6 The Ideal and the Practical 561
14.7 The Photodiode 562
14.8 The Reverse Saturation Current 582
14.9 Practical Efficiency 584
14.10 Solar-Power Satellite 586
Appendix A 594
Appendix B 595
References 602
Problems 603
Part IV: Wind and Water 613
Chapter 15: Wind Energy 615
15.1 History 615
15.2 Wind Turbine Configurations 618
15.3 Eolergometry 622
15.4 Availability of Wind Energy 623
15.5 Wind Turbine Characteristics 624
15.6 Principles of Aerodynamics 626
15.7 Airfoils 630
15.8 Reynolds Number 633
15.9 Aspect Ratio 635
15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis 637
15.11 Aspect Ratio (of a wind turbine) 644
15.12 Centrifugal Force 645
15.13 Performance Calculation 647
15.14 Magnus Effect 649
Reference 650
Problems 651
Chapter 16: Ocean Engines 669
16.1 Introduction 669
16.2 Wave Energy 669
16.3 Tidal Energy 679
16.4 Energy from Currents 679
16.5 Salination Energy 684
16.6 The Osmotic Engine 687
References 690
Problems 692
Subject Index 695