American Trypanosomiasis (eBook)

Front Cover 1
American Trypanosomiasis Chagas Disease: One Hundred Years of Research 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Preface 16
List of Contributors 18
Part 1 General Aspects 24
Chapter 1 History of the Discovery of American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease) 26
1.1 A Beautiful History of Life and Work 26
1.2 The History of a Significant Discovery 31
1.3 Salvador Mazza: The History of His Knowledge of the Disease 36
1.4 Cecilio Romaña: His Contribution to the Identification of the Disease 37
1.5 First Evidence of Trypanosomiasis Americana (Chagas Disease) in Various Countries of Latin America 37
1.6 Chagas Disease 100 Years after the Discovery 41
Chapter 2 Chagas Disease in Pre-Colombian Civilizations 48
2.1 Introduction 48
2.2 The Parasite Transmission Cycle 50
2.3 Insect Vectors Associated with the Human Habitats 50
2.4 Historical Overview 52
2.5 Pre-Hispanic Settlements in Areas of Transmission of T. cruzi 56
2.6 Oral Infection by T. cruzi 60
2.7 Evidence of Human T. cruzi Infection in Pre-Colombian Civilizations 63
Chapter 3 Social and Medical Aspects: Morbidity and Mortality in General Population 68
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 General Frame and Costs of HCD 70
3.3 The Medical Burden of HCD in Endemic and Nonendemic Areas 71
3.4 The Particular Question of Specific Treatment of Chagas Disease 73
3.5 Some Social Remarks Concerning the Control of HCD 73
3.6 Final Remarks 74
Chapter 4 Current Trends and Future Prospects for Control of Chagas Disease 78
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Modes of Transmission 79
4.3 Methods and Measurement of Epidemiological Trends in the Continent from 1980 to 2006 79
4.4 Feasibility of Interruption of Transmission 81
4.5 Current Control Programs 83
4.6 Economic Impact 84
4.7 Epidemiological Impact in the Region 85
4.8 Initiative of the Southern Cone Countries: Epidemiological Trends 86
4.9 Initiative of the Andean Countries: Epidemiological Trends 90
4.10 Initiative of the Central American Countries: Epidemiological Trends 92
4.11 Amazon Initiative 94
4.12 Epidemiological Impact 95
4.13 Future Challenges 97
Chapter 5 Geographical Distribution of Chagas Disease 106
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Vector Phylogeography and Ecology 107
5.3 Parasite Phylogeography and Ecology 112
5.4 Vector–Parasite–Host Interactions and Implications for Chagas Disease Distribution 116
5.5 Assessment of Regions Affected by Chagas Disease 118
Part 2 Insect Vectors 138
Chapter 6 Classification and Phylogeny of the Triatominae 140
6.1 Introduction 140
6.2 Subfamily: Triatominae 141
6.3 Concept of Species 149
6.4 Examples of Specific Questions 155
6.5 Conclusions 158
6.6 Recommendations 160
Chapter 7 Biology of Triatominae 172
7.1 Introduction 172
7.2 General Biology of Vectors 172
7.3 Vectorial Capacity and Domesticity 184
7.4 Vector Control Strategy 187
Chapter 8 Population Genetics of Triatomines 192
8.1 Introduction 192
8.2 Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium 195
8.3 Evolutionary Forces 197
8.4 Genetic Variation and Population Structure 197
8.5 Molecular Markers 203
8.6 Study Design and Marker Choice 206
8.7 Genetic Variation and Population Structure of R. prolixus, T. dimidiata, and T. infestans 208
8.8 Perspective and Future Directions 222
Chapter 9 Geographic Distribution of Triatominae Vectors in America 232
9.1 Introduction 232
9.2 Limitations of Sampling Methods to Estimate the Geographic Distribution of Triatominae 233
9.3 Pattern of Species Richness in the New World Triatominae 233
9.4 Distribution of Triatominae in the Americas 235
9.5 Environmental Variables as Indicators of Triatominae Geographic Distribution 243
9.6 Global Warming and Expansion of the Geographic Range of T. infestans 246
Chapter 10 Control Strategies Against Triatominae 256
10.1 Introduction 256
10.2 Elimination of Domestic Populations of Triatominae 257
10.3 Multinational Initiatives 258
10.4 The Beginning of the End? 260
10.5 Criteria for Stratification of Vector Control Priorities 263
10.6 Insecticide Resistance 264
10.7 The Political Commitment 265
Part 3 Non-Human Mammalian Hosts 270
Chapter 11 Domestic and Wild Mammalian Reservoirs 272
11.1 Introduction 272
11.2 The Complex T. cruzi Transmission Cycle 273
11.3 What Are the T. cruzi Reservoir Hosts? 274
11.4 Importance of Wild and Synanthropic Mammals on Public Health in Brazil 287
11.5 Domestic Animals 289
11.6 Importance of Infected Domestic Mammals on Public Health in Brazil 291
Chapter 12 Veterinary Aspects and Experimental Studies 300
12.1 Introduction 300
12.2 The Various Ways of Infection of Animals (and Humans) 301
12.3 The Problem of Diagnosis in Animals 303
12.4 Natural Infections in Domestic Animals and Livestock 305
12.5 Experimental Studies in Animal Models 307
12.6 Experimental Infections in Livestock 325
12.7 New Cycles Establish in the USA 326
12.8 Conclusions 328
Part 4 The Causative Agent: Trypanosoma cruzi 342
Chapter 13 Classification and Phylogeny of Trypanosoma cruzi 344
13.1 Application of Molecular Phylogenetics to the study of Trypanosome Taxonomy and Evolution 344
13.2 Origin of Trypanosomes—Relationship of T. cruzi with T. brucei 346
13.3 Relationships within the Genus Trypanosoma 347
13.4 Molecular Phylogenetics and Traditional Taxonomy of Mammalian Trypanosomes 349
13.5 The Main Groups of Trypanosomes Recognized in Molecular Phylogenetic Analyses 350
13.6 The T. cruzi Clade (Subgenus Schizotrypanum Chagas, 1909) 351
13.7 The Origin of the T. cruzi Clade 353
13.8 Outlook 355
Chapter 14 Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi and Biological Diversity 362
4.1 Introduction 362
14.2 Evolutionary Stages 362
14.3 Biological Cycle 364
14.4 Biological Diversity of T. cruzi 371
14.5 Maintaining of T. cruzi in the Laboratory 376
Chapter 15 Biochemistry of Trypanosoma cruzi 388
15.1 Introduction 388
15.2 The Need for Chemotherapy of Chagas Disease 389
15.3 Metabolic Pathways in T. cruzi That Could Provide Targets for Drugs Against Chagas Disease 391
15.4 Conclusions 404
Chapter 16 Ultrastructure of Trypanosoma cruzi and Its Interaction with Host Cells 416
16.1 Structural Organization of Trypanosoma cruzi 416
16.2 Fine Structure of the Interaction of T. cruzi with Host Cells 435
Chapter 17 Genetics of Trypanosoma cruzi 456
17.1 Nuclear Genome 456
17.2 Kinetoplast Genome 472
Chapter 18 Experimental and Natural Recombination in Trypanosoma cruzi 482
18.1 Introduction 482
18.2 Genetic Diversity of T. cruzi 483
18.3 Experimental Recombination 484
18.4 Recombination in Natural Populations 487
18.5 Conclusions and Future Research 494
Chapter 19 Reticulate Evolution in Trypanosoma cruzi: Medical and Epidemiological Implications 498
19.1 Introduction 498
19.2 An Indispensable Recall of Evolutionary Genetics 498
19.3 The Results: How Does T. cruzi Evolve? 501
19.4 Conclusion: T. cruzi Is a Star in the Field of Pathogen Population Genetics 507
Chapter 20 Implications of Trypanosoma cruzi Intraspecific Diversity in the Pathogenesis of Chagas Disease 512
20.1 Introduction 512
20.2 The Genomic Paradigm 513
20.3 The Genetic Variability of T. cruzi 513
20.4 Major Lineages in T. cruzi 520
20.5 The Origin of the T. cruzi Hybrid Strains 521
20.6 Genotyping the Six Major Lineages of T. cruzi 523
20.7 Epidemiological and Clinical Implications of the Major T. cruzi Lineages 526
20.8 Clonal–Histotropic Model of Chagas Disease 530
20.9 The Role of Host Genetics 531
Part 5 Modes of Transmission 546
Chapter 21 Vector Transmission 548
21.1 How Does the Transmission Work? 548
21.2 Who Transmits the Parasite? 550
21.3 Where Does the Transmission Occur? 554
21.4 The Perception of Vectors and a Need for Education 556
Chapter 22 Maternal–Fetal Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi 562
22.1 From Maternal–Fetal Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to Congenital Chagas Disease: Definitions and Limits 562
22.2 Epidemiological Aspects of Congenital Infection with T. cruzi 563
22.3 Placental Responses to T. cruzi Infection 569
22.4 Routes of Maternal–Fetal Transmission of T. cruzi 570
22.5 Timing of Maternal–Fetal Transmission of T. cruzi 574
22.6 Factors Involved in Transplacental Transmission and Development of T. cruzi Infection in Fetuses/Newborns 574
22.7 T. cruzi Vertical Transmission in Other Mammals and Experimental Models 578
22.8 Clinical Manifestations and Long-Term Consequences of Congenital Chagas Disease 580
22.9 Laboratory Diagnosis of Congenital Infection with T. cruzi 583
22.10 Treatment of Congenital Infection with T. cruzi 586
22.11 Prevention and Control of Congenital T. cruzi Infection 587
22.12 Conclusions 588
Chapter 23 Other Forms of Transmission 606
23.1 Introduction 606
23.2 Blood Bank Transmission 606
23.3 Organ Transplants 609
23.4 Laboratory-Acquired Contamination 609
23.5 Oral Transmission 610
Part 6 Immunology: Host–Parasite Interaction 622
Chapter 24 Protective Host Response to Parasite and Its Limitations 624
24.1 Introduction 624
24.2 Innate Immune Response in T. cruzi Infection 625
24.3 Adaptive Immune Response: Induction, Characterization, and Role of the T-Cell Response 643
24.4 Adaptive Immune Response: The B Cell Response and Production of Antibodies 647
24.5 Deregulations of T and B Lymphocyte Responses 651
24.6 Escape Mechanisms of T. cruzi from the Immune Responses 658
24.7 Integrated Dynamic of the Immune Response 661
24.8 Conclusion 664
Chapter 25 Pathological Consequences of Host Response to Parasite 692
25.1 Introduction 692
25.2 Pathological Disorders in Humans 692
25.3 The Mouse Model of T. cruzi Infection 696
25.4 Strains of Parasite and Pathology 700
25.5 Perspectives 701
Chapter 26 Human Genetic Susceptibility to Chagas Disease 714
26.1 Introduction of Key Concepts 714
26.2 General Recalls about Research on Human Genetic Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases 715
26.3 State-of-the Art with Chagas Disease 718
26.4 Conclusion: Perspectives 722
Part 7 Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment 730
Chapter 27 Clinical Phases and Forms of Chagas Disease 732
27.1 Introduction 732
27.2 Acute Phase 734
27.3 Chronic Phase 738
27.4 Concluding Remarks 759
Chapter 28 Diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection 766
28.1 Introduction 766
28.2 History of Diagnosis in Chagas Disease 766
28.3 Diagnosis of T. cruzi Infection 767
28.4 Parasitological Tests 769
28.5 Serological Tests 776
28.6 Blood Banks, Serology, and Quality Control for Chagas Disease 786
28.7 Application of Diagnostic Tests in Different Contexts 795
28.8 Quality Control in Serology 802
28.9 Prophylaxis to Avoid Accidental Contamination 803
28.10 Future Perspectives 803
Chapter 29 AIDS and Chagas Disease 816
29.1 Introduction 816
29.2 Epidemiology of Chagas Disease in Latin America and Argentina 816
29.3 Natural History of Chagas Disease 817
29.4 Pathogenic Mechanisms of Chagas Disease Reactivation in AIDS Patients 818
29.5 AIDS and Chagas Disease 819
29.6 Conclusion 828
Chapter 30 Treatment of Chagas Disease 832
30.1 Introduction 832
30.2 Drugs Which Inhibit Protein or Purine Synthesis 832
30.3 Inhibitors of Ergoesterol 834
30.4 Ofloxacine 835
30.5 Inhibitors of Trypanothione Metabolism 836
30.6 Inhibitors of Cysteine Protease (CPI) 836
30.7 Inhibitors of Phospholipids 837
30.8 Inhibitors of Pyrophosphate Metabolism 837
30.9 Natural Drugs 838
30.10 Other Drugs 839
30.11 Treatment of Human Infection 839
30.12 Evaluation and Follow-Up of Specific Therapy 843
30.13 Resistance of T. cruzi to Drugs 844
30.14 Critical Comments 845
Chapter 31 Vaccine Development for Chagas Disease 850
31.1 Introduction 850
31.2 Immune Mechanisms Associated with Protection Against T. cruzi Infection 850
31.3 DNA Vaccination in Experimental Models of T. cruzi Infection 854
31.4 Basic Laboratory Studies on Premunition Against T. cruzi 857
31.5 Field Studies on Premunition in Guinea Pigs and Dogs 859
31.6 Generation of Attenuated Parasites by Genetic Manipulation and Their Use as Potential Vaccines Against Chagas Disease 860
31.7 Final Considerations 864