Principles of Microbiological Troubleshooting in the Industrial Food Processing Environment (eBook)

Preface 5
Acknowledgments 6
Contents 8
Contributors 9
1 Troubleshooting Costs 10
1.1 The Cost of Food Contamination 10
1.1.1 The Extent of Microbial Foodborne Illness in America 10
1.1.2 Overview of Costs Associated with Selected Foodborne Pathogens 11
1.1.3 Costs Associated with Spoilage and Foods with Microbial Indicators of ''Unacceptable Quality'' 11
References 12
2 Selected Pathogens of Concern to Industrial Food Processors: Infectious, Toxigenic, Toxico-Infectious, Selected Emerging Pathogenic Bacteria 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Salmonella, an Infectious Invasive Agent 14
2.2.1 Salmonella: The Organism 16
2.2.2 Cost 16
2.2.3 Disease Syndromes 16
2.2.4 Infectious Dose 17
2.2.5 Reservoirs 18
2.2.6 Foods Associated with Human Salmonella spp. Infection 18
2.2.7 Dry Foods 18
2.2.8 Food Processing Environments 19
2.3 L. monocytogenes, an Infectious Invasive Agent 19
2.3.1 The Organism 19
2.3.2 Cost 20
2.3.3 Disease Syndromes 20
2.3.4 The Infectious Process 21
2.3.5 Infectious Dose 21
2.3.6 Reservoirs and Implicated Foods 22
2.3.7 Food Processing Environments 22
2.4 Campylobacter, an Infectious Invasive Agent 22
2.4.1 The Organism 23
2.4.2 Costs 23
2.4.3 Disease Syndromes 23
2.4.4 Infectious Dose 24
2.4.5 Reservoirs 24
2.4.6 Foods Associated with Campylobacter 24
2.4.7 Campylobacter and Poultry 25
2.5 Staphylococcus, a Toxigenic Pathogen 27
2.5.1 The Organism 27
2.5.2 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin 28
2.5.3 Cost 29
2.5.4 Disease Syndromes 29
2.5.5 Toxic Dose 29
2.5.6 Reservoirs 30
2.6 B. cereus, a Toxigenic Pathogen 30
2.6.1 The Organism 30
2.6.2 Factors Related to Cost 31
2.6.3 Symptoms 31
2.6.4 Infectious Dose 32
2.6.5 Reservoirs 32
2.6.6 Foods Associated with B. cereus 32
2.6.7 Food Processing Environments 32
2.7 C. botulinum, a Toxigenic Pathogen 33
2.7.1 The Organism 33
2.7.2 Disease Incidence and Syndrome 33
2.7.3 Reservoirs and Prevalence in Foods 34
2.7.4 Physiological Characteristics of C. botulinum 34
2.7.5 Detection of C. botulinum Neurotoxins 35
2.7.6 Control Treatments 35
2.8 Enterohemorrhagic E. coli, a Toxico-infectious Pathogen 37
2.8.1 The Organism 37
2.8.2 Cost 38
2.8.3 Disease Syndromes 38
2.8.3.1 Onset Time 38
2.8.3.2 Attachment and Colonization 39
2.8.3.3 Hemorrhagic Colitis 40
2.8.3.4 HUS 40
2.8.3.5 TPP 40
2.8.4 Pathogenic Mechanisms 41
2.8.5 Infectious Dose 41
2.8.6 Reservoirs 41
2.8.7 Foods Associated with E. coli O157:H7 42
2.8.8 Unique Acid Tolerance in Foods 42
2.8.9 Other Sources of Infection 42
2.8.10 Food Processing Environments 42
2.9 C. perfringens, a Toxico-Infectious Agent 43
2.9.1 The Organism 43
2.9.2 C. perfringens Enterotoxin 44
2.9.3 Cost 44
2.9.4 Disease Syndromes 45
2.9.5 Infectious Dose 45
2.9.6 Reservoirs 45
2.10 Arcobacter, an Emerging Pathogen 46
2.10.1 Characteristics of the Organism 46
2.10.2 Nature of the Disease 46
2.10.3 Food and Environmental Sources 47
2.11 Cronobacter (Enterobacter sakazakii), an Emerging Pathogen 47
2.11.1 Introduction, Background, and Bacterial Characteristics 47
2.11.2 E. sakazakii Reservoirs and Presence in Food and the Environment 48
2.11.3 Pathogenicity and Infectious Dose 49
2.11.4 Regulation 50
2.11.5 Food Industry Concerns 50
2.12 M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, an Emerging Pathogen 51
2.12.1 The Organism 51
2.12.2 Disease 52
2.12.3 Costs 52
2.12.4 Reservoirs 53
2.12.5 Food Processing Issues 53
2.12.5.1 Heat Resistance 53
2.12.5.2 Reason for Lack of Information About MAP 54
2.12.6 Some Research Needs 55
References 56
3 Solving Microbial Spoilage Problems in Processed Foods 70
3.1 Introduction 70
3.2 Spoilage of Processed Meat, Poultry, and Fish 72
3.3 Spoilage of Dairy Products 75
3.4 Spoilage of Beverage Products 78
3.5 Spoilage of Bakery Products 79
3.6 Spoilage of Canned Foods 81
3.7 Spoilage of Fruit and Confectionery Products 81
3.8 Emulsions 81
3.9 Isolation and Identification of Spoilage Organisms 82
3.10 Case Studies 83
References 84
4 Where These Contaminants Are Found 86
4.1 The Significance of Environmental Contamination 86
4.1.1 Causes of Microbial Growth Niche Development 87
4.1.2 In-Factory Risk Assessments and Zones 89
4.2 The Significance of Ingredient Contamination 90
4.3 The Significance of Process Failure Events 90
4.4 Examples of Operating Practices That May Create Growth Niches or Transmit Microbes in the Factory Environment 91
4.5 Examples of Maintenance/Repair Practices That May Create Growth Niches or Transmit Microbes in the Factory Environment 97
4.6 Examples of Equipment or Factory Design That May Create Growth Niches or Transmit Microbes 103
References 108
5 What Factors Are Required for Microbes to Grow, Survive, and Die? 110
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Intrinsic Factors Affecting the Growth and Survival of Microbes 113
5.2.1 Water Activity (aw) 113
5.2.2 Acidity 113
5.2.2.1 Inhibitory Substances 114
5.2.3 Oxygen and Oxidation/Reduction Potential 115
5.2.4 Competition 117
5.3 Extrinsic Factors Affecting the Growth and Survival of Microbes 117
5.3.1 Temperature 117
5.3.2 Impact of Temperature on Microbial Death 117
5.3.3 Other Extrinsic Factors 119
5.4 Interactions Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors 119
5.4.1 Hurdles 120
References 122
6 Where Do I Start (Beginning the Investigation)? 123
6.1 Understanding the Situation (Getting the Facts) 124
6.2 Know the Process 124
6.2.1 Review the HACCP Plan 124
6.2.2 Check Assumptions 124
6.2.2.1 Critical Limits 124
6.2.2.2 Laboratory Assays and Quality Systems 125
6.3 Determine the Extent of Contamination (Scoping the Problem) 126
6.3.1 Determine the Production Schedule 126
6.3.2 Touring the Plant and Preliminary Site Selection 127
6.3.3 Prepare Operations for Disruption 127
6.3.4 Assembling the Sampling Team 127
6.3.4.1 Maintenance Staff 127
6.3.4.2 Quality Assurance Personnel 128
6.3.4.3 Scribes 128
6.3.5 Picture Taking 128
6.3.6 Sanitation Observations and Validation 129
6.3.7 Post-Startup Observations and Sampling 129
References 129
7 How Do I Sample the Environment and Equipment? 130
7.1 Introduction 130
7.2 Factors That Result in Microbial Growth Niche Formation 131
7.3 Factors that Result in Biofilm Formation 132
7.3.1 Some Implications of Growth Niches and Biofilms to the Food Factory Environment 132
7.4 Sampling Techniques 133
7.4.1 Sponge Samples 133
7.4.2 Swab Samples 133
7.4.3 Contact Plate 134
7.4.4 Pre-sterilized Tongue Blades 134
7.4.5 Air Sampling 134
7.5 ATP Bioluminescence and Protein Assays 134
7.6 In-Line Sampling 135
7.7 Where to Sample 136
7.8 Suggestions for Sampling Supplies 136
7.9 When to Sample 137
7.9.1 The Value of Pre-operational Swabs 137
7.9.2 The Value of Operational Swabs 137
7.9.3 The Value of Post-operational Swabs 137
7.10 What Do I Test for? Indicator Microorganisms 138
7.10.1 Index Organisms 138
7.11 Indicators of Quality 138
7.12 Indicators of Sanitation Efficacy 139
7.13 Surrogates 139
7.14 Summary 140
References 140
8 How Many Samples Do I Take? 142
8.1 The Statistics of Sampling and Resampling 142
8.2 Investigational Sampling 144
8.3 Other Approaches to Enhanced Detection of a Pathogen 145
8.4 Resolution of Questionable Data 145
8.4.1 Retesting 145
8.4.2 Resolution of Questionable Results Through GLPs -- Questions to Ask 146
8.5 Microbiological Criteria and Specifications 147
8.5.1 Establishing Specifications 147
8.5.1.1 Common Errors in the Establishment of Microbiological Specifications 147
8.6 Types of Sampling Plans 148
8.6.1 Attributes Plans 148
8.6.2 ICMSF Plans 148
8.6.3 FDA Plans 149
8.6.4 Variables Plans 150
References 150
9 When Can I Start Up My Factory or Processing Line Again? 152
9.1 Introduction 152
9.2 Principles and Suggestions 153
9.2.1 How Can One Be Sure the Problem Is Eliminated? 153
9.2.2 Revalidate HACCP and CCPs 153
9.2.2.1 Hazard Analysis 153
9.2.2.2 Establish CCPs 154
9.2.2.3 Establish CLs 154
9.2.2.4 Establish Monitoring Procedures 154
9.2.2.5 Establish Corrective Actions (CAs) 155
9.2.2.6 Establish Verification Procedures 155
9.2.2.7 Establish Record Keeping and Documentation Procedures 156
9.2.3 Ingredients 156
9.2.3.1 Risk Associated with GMP Score 157
9.2.3.2 Sanitation Standard Operating Practices (SSOPs) 157
9.3 When Am I Allowed to Start Up? 158
9.4 Hold and Test Considerations and Unique Line Start-Up Considerations 158
9.4.1 Sampling the First Product Off the Line 158
9.4.2 Sampling the Lot 159
9.4.2.1 The Use of Indicator Organisms and Statistical Process Control 159
References 159
10 Value and Methods for Molecular Subtyping of Bacteria 161
10.1 The Value of Molecular Subtyping Methods for the Food Industry 161
10.1.1 Limitations of Traditional Cultural Methods for Tracking Food-Associated Microorganisms -- Why Do We Need Molecular Subtyping Methods? 162
10.1.2 Evolution of Molecular Subtyping Methods 163
10.2 Principles of Molecular Subtyping Methods 164
10.2.1 Overview of Molecular Subtyping Genetic Techniques 164
10.2.2 Overview of Molecular Subtyping Methods 165
10.2.2.1 Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) 165
10.2.2.2 Ribotyping 166
10.2.2.3 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Methods Generating Fragment Length Polymorphisms 167
10.2.2.4 DNA Sequencing-Based Subtyping and Characterization Methods 167
10.2.3 Others Methods 168
10.2.3.1 Importance of Combined Use of Molecular Subtyping and Epidemiological Data 169
10.3 Users of Molecular Subtyping Methods 169
10.3.1 Foodborne Illness Outbreak Investigation -- Salmonellosis from Raw Pecans 170
10.3.2 In-Plant Investigation -- Microbiological Spoilage of Salad Dressing 172
10.3.3 Company Response to Molecular or Subtyping Data 174
10.4 Conclusions 177
References 177
Index 179