Ecological Connectivity among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems (eBook)

Foreword 4
Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributors 10
1 Introduction 13
References 16
Part I Biogeochemical Linkages 19
2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Exchange Among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 20
2.1 Introduction 21
2.1.1 Background on Coastal Flux Studies 21
2.1.2 Conceptual Model of N and P Exchange Among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 23
2.2 N and P in Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 24
2.2.1 N and P Concentration in Mangrove Ecosystems 25
2.2.2 N and P Concentration in Seagrass Ecosystems 28
2.2.3 N and P Concentration in Coral Reef Ecosystems 30
2.2.4 N and P Flux in Mangrove Ecosystems 32
2.2.5 N and P Flux in Seagrass Ecosystems 36
2.2.6 N and P Flux in Coral Reef Ecosystems 40
2.3 Human Impacts on N and P Concentration and Flux 42
2.4 Conclusions 44
References 46
3 Carbon Exchange Among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 55
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Riverine Carbon Transport to the Tropical Coastal Zone 56
3.2.1 Fluxes, Composition, and Fate of Riverine Organic Matter 56
3.2.2 Effects of Human Perturbations 61
3.2.2.1 Changing River Flows and Catchment Land-uses 61
3.2.2.2 Effects of Climate Change on Carbon Exchange 62
3.3 Exchange of Carbon Between Vegetated Tropical Systems and Adjacent Systems 62
3.3.1 Transfer of Carbon from Intertidal to Subtidal --- Outwelling 62
3.3.1.1 Exchange of DOC and POC 63
3.3.1.2 Exchange of Dissolved Inorganic Carbon 65
3.3.1.3 Migration and Trophic Relay 66
3.3.1.4 Effects on Organic Matter Transfer on Food Webs and Ecological Structure 67
3.3.1.5 Detecting ---False Positives--- in Outwelling Studies---Avoiding Pitfalls in Stable Isotope Gradient Analysis 68
3.3.2 Transfer of Carbon to Intertidal Habitats---Inwelling 69
3.3.2.1 Seagrass to Mangroves 69
3.3.2.2 Seagrass to Mudflats 70
3.3.3 Scales of Carbon Transfer Among Systems 71
3.3.4 Carbon Exchange in Coral Reefs 73
3.4 Conclusions and Future Research Directions 74
References 75
Part II Ecological Linkages 81
4 Dynamics of Reef Fish and Decapod Crustacean Spawning Aggregations: Underlying Mechanisms, Habitat Linkages, and Trophic Interactions 82
4.1 Introduction 82
4.2 Resident and Transient Spawning Aggregations 85
4.3 Underlying Mechanisms of Spawning Aggregations 87
4.4 Characteristics of Spawning Aggregation Sites 92
4.5 Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Connectivity 95
4.5.1 Habitat Linkages 95
4.5.2 Migration Behavior Associated with Spawning 99
4.5.3 Catchment and Functional Migration Areas 103
4.6 Trophic Interactions of Spawning Aggregations 107
4.7 Summary and Future Directions 112
4.8 Acknowledgments 116
References 116
5 The Senses and Environmental Cues Used by Marine Larvae of Fish and Decapod Crustaceans to Find Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 144
5.1 Introduction 144
5.2 The Senses 146
5.2.1 Olfaction 146
5.2.2 Auditory Senses 158
5.2.3 Vision 160
5.2.4 Lateral Line and Electroreception 164
5.2.5 Magnetic, Thermal, and Other Senses 168
5.3 The Cues 168
5.3.1 Olfactory Cues 169
5.3.2 Auditory Cues 174
5.3.3 Visual Cues 176
5.3.4 Rheotactic and Electric Cues 177
5.3.5 Solar, Magnetic, Wave, Thermal, Salinity, and Other Cues 177
5.3.6 The Use of Two or More Cues 178
5.4 Future Directions 179
5.5 Final Thoughts 183
References 185
6 Mechanisms Affecting Recruitment Patterns of Fish and Decapods in Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 194
6.1 Introduction 194
6.2 Defining Recruitment 195
6.3 Defining Early Life History Strategies 197
6.4 Larval Settlement 199
6.4.1 Modification of Larval Supply 200
6.4.2 Behavior of Settlement Settlement 201
6.4.3 Mortality and Larval Condition 202
6.5 Post-settlement Transition (A Distinct Behavioral Phase During Which Individuals are Associated with the Benthos but are not yet Functioning as Juveniles) 204
6.5.1 Delayed Metamorphosis 204
6.5.2 Habitat Selection 205
6.5.3 Predation 208
6.6 Post-settlement Stage (Time Period Directly After Metamorphosis, and One of Total Benthic Associationa Period of High Benthic Mortality mortality) 209
6.6.1 Mortality 209
6.6.2 Competition 210
6.6.3 Movement Among Habitats 213
6.7 Recruitment (Occurs at the End of the Post-settlement post-settlement Stage, and Incorporates Effects of Larval and Post-settlement Processes) 214
6.7.1 Growth and Shelter Size 215
6.7.2 Competition 216
6.8 Use of Reef and Non-reef Areas as Recruitment recruitment Habitats 7.7 Use of reef and non-reef areas as recruitment habitats 218
6.8.1 Habitat Mosaics 219
6.8.2 Recruitment Habitat Quality 221
6.8.3 Recruitment Habitat Proximity 223
6.8.4 Recruit0Adult Connectivity 224
6.9 Effects of Disturbance on Recruitment 225
6.9.1 Tropical Cyclones/Hurricanes 225
6.9.2 Habitat Disturbance and Degradation 226
6.10 Greatest Knowledge Gaps 227
6.10.1 Connecting Larval and Juvenile Traits 227
6.10.2 Partitioning Mortality and Emigration 227
6.10.3 Conclusion 228
References 228
7 Habitat Shifts by Decapodsan Example of Connectivity Across Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 238
7.1 Introduction 238
7.2 Early Juvenile Habitats 242
7.2.1 Pelagic to Algae, Seagrass, or Saltmarsh 243
7.2.2 Pelagic to Mangroves 246
7.2.3 Pelagic (or Freshwater) to Terrestrial 247
7.3 Late Juvenile/Subadult Habitat 247
7.3.1 Algal to Crevice 248
7.3.2 Intertidal to Subtidal 249
7.4 Adult Habitats 250
7.4.1 Estuary to Offshore 251
7.4.2 Shallow to Deep 253
7.4.3 Lobster Dens 253
7.4.4 Land Crabs 255
7.5 Why Change Habitats? 256
7.5.1 Protection from Predation 256
7.5.2 Food 260
7.5.3 Reproduction 263
7.6 Future Research 266
7.7 Summary 268
References 269
8 Diel and Tidal Movements by Fish and Decapods Linking Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 279
8.1 Introduction 279
8.2 The Diel Cycle 282
8.3 The Tides and Tidal Currents 282
8.3.1 Short-term Patterns 283
8.3.2 Spring--Neap Tide Cycle 283
8.3.3 Extreme Tides 285
8.3.4 Predicted and Observed tides 285
8.3.5 Distribution of Tidal Types and Tidal Ranges on Tropical Coasts 286
8.4 Diel Movements of Fish 288
8.4.1 Haemulidae 288
8.4.2 Other Families and Species 297
8.4.3 Feeding Guilds 299
8.5 Diel Movements of Decapods 300
8.5.1 Lobsters 300
8.5.2 Penaeid Shrimps 302
8.5.3 Crabs 302
8.6 Tidal Movements of Fish 303
8.6.1 Transients and Residents 304
8.6.2 Tidal Migrations in Tropical Habitats 304
8.6.3 Functions of Intertidal Migrations 305
8.6.4 Sequence of Species and Size Groups 307
8.6.5 Cues of Tidal Migrations 307
8.6.6 Movements and Foraging Ranges 308
8.6.7 Site Fidelity and Homing 309
8.7 Comparison Between Diel and Tidal Migrations 309
8.7.1 Analogies and Differences Between Diel and Tidal Migrations 309
8.7.2 Spring--Neap Tide Alternation 312
8.7.3 Interaction Between Tide and Time of Day 313
8.8 Tidal Movements of Decapods 313
8.8.1 Lobsters 314
8.8.2 Penaeid Shrimps 314
8.8.3 Portunid Crabs 316
8.9 Comparison of the Degree of Habitat Connectivity among Geographic Regions 317
8.10 Tidal Range and Home Range Size 318
8.11 Tidesan Overlooked Component of Variation Between Coasts 319
References 321
9 Living in Two Worlds: Diadromous Fishes, and Factors Affecting Population Connectivity Between Tropical Rivers and Coasts 333
9.1 Introduction 333
9.2 Types of Connectivity 334
9.2.1 Amphidromy 343
9.2.2 Anadromy 344
9.2.3 Catadromy 344
9.3 Examples of Tropical Diadromous Fish Life Cycles 344
9.3.1 Amphidromous Gobies and Gudgeons 344
9.3.2 Anadromous Clupeoid Fishes 346
9.3.3 Catadromous Barramundi 348
9.4 Factors Affecting the Connectivity Between Freshwater and Marine Populations 349
9.4.1 Droughts and Floods 350
9.4.2 Impacts of dams 354
9.4.3 Global Climate Change 355
References 357
10 Evaluation of Nursery function of Mangroves and Seagrass beds for Tropical Decapods and Reef fishes: Patterns and Underlying Mechanisms 364
10.1 Introduction 365
10.2 Existing Evidence for Nursery role of Shallow-Water Tropical Coastal Habitats 367
10.2.1 Density 367
10.2.2 Growth 373
10.2.3 Survival 376
10.2.4 Movement 376
10.3 Underlying Factors Determining Nursery-role Potential 382
10.3.1 Food Availability Hypothesis 382
10.3.2 Predation Risk Hypothesis 385
10.3.2.1 Predator Abundance 385
10.3.2.2 Turbidity Hypothesis 388
10.3.2.3 Structural Heterogeneity Hypothesis 388
10.3.2.4 Predation Risk 393
10.4 Synthesis: Nursery role of Mangroves and Seagrass beds 396
References 399
11 Sources of Variation that Affect Perceived Nursery Function of Mangroves 407
11.1 Introduction 407
11.2 Variation in Definitions 408
11.2.1 What Defines a Nursery? 408
11.2.2 What Defines a Mangrove Forest? 410
11.3 Spatial Variation 412
11.3.1 Geographic Regions 412
11.3.2 Shelf Configuration 412
11.3.3 Habitat Configuration 413
11.4 Temporal Variation 416
11.4.1 Hydrology 416
11.4.2 Time of Day 416
11.5 Species Variation 416
11.5.1 Variation Among Species 417
11.5.2 Variation Within Species 419
11.5.3 Variation Among Individuals 420
11.6 Conclusions 421
References 423
Part III Tools for Studying Ecological and Biogeochemical Linkages 428
12 Tools for Studying Biogeochemical Connectivity Among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 429
12.1 Introduction 429
12.2 Direct Flux Measurements 431
12.3 Tracing the Source of Organic Matter in the Water Column 435
12.3.1 General Remarks 435
12.3.2 Optical Approaches 436
12.3.3 Isotopic Approaches 440
12.3.4 Molecular Approaches and Multiple-Source Mixing Models 442
12.3.5 Molecular Fingerprinting Techniques 444
12.4 Tracing the Source of Organic Matter in Mangrove and Coastal Sediments 447
12.5 Conclusions 450
References 451
13 Tools for Studying Biological Marine Ecosystem InteractionsNatural and Artificial Tags 460
13.1 Introduction 460
13.2 External Tags 462
13.3 External Marks 469
13.4 Internal Tags 470
13.5 Telemetry 472
13.6 Natural Marks 473
13.7 Genetic Identification and Marking 475
13.8 Chemical Marks 477
13.8.1 Artificial Marks 478
13.8.2 Natural Elemental and Isotopic Signatures 481
13.9 Summary and Future Directions 486
References 488
14 A Landscape Ecology Approach for the Study of Ecological Connectivity Across Tropical Marine Seascapes 496
14.1 Conceptual Framework 496
14.1.1 Definitions and Concepts 499
14.1.1.1 Some Commonly Used Landscape Ecology and GIS Terms 499
14.1.1.2 What is Connectivity? 501
14.1.1.3 The Importance of Spatial Scale 502
14.1.2 The Emergence of Landscape Ecology in Tropical Marine Ecology 503
14.2 Operational Framework: Designing a Landscape Ecology Study 504
14.2.1 Scale Selection 504
14.2.2 Use of Spatially Referenced Faunal Distribution Data 510
14.2.2.1 Observational Studies 510
14.2.2.2 Tagging Studies 512
14.2.2.3 Telemetry Studies 513
14.2.3 Analytical Tools for Examining Seascape Connectivity 514
14.2.3.1 Spatial Pattern Metrics 516
14.2.3.2 Graph Theory 518
14.2.3.3 Computer Simulation Models 519
14.2.3.4 Ecological Thresholds in Seascape Structure 520
14.3 Important Considerations 521
14.3.1 Data Needs 521
14.3.2 Not all Habitat Patches are Created Equal 523
14.4 Lessons Learned 523
14.4.1 Lessons from Terrestrial Landscape Ecology 523
14.4.2 Insights for Seascape Ecology 524
14.5 Implications for Resource Management 526
References 527
Part IV Management and Socio-economic Implications 534
15 Relationships Between Tropical Coastal Habitats and (offshore) Fisheries 535
15.1 Introduction 535
15.2 Fisheries 537
15.3 Mangrove/EstuaryFisheries Connectivity 538
15.3.1 Penaeid Prawns 541
15.3.1.1 Malaysia 541
15.3.1.2 Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia 542
15.3.1.3 India 542
15.3.1.4 Gulf of Mexico 543
15.3.2 Fishes 543
15.3.2.1 The Hilsa Fishery, South Asia 545
15.3.2.2 The Larut-Matang Fishery, Malaysia 545
15.3.2.3 The ébrié Lagoon Fishery, Ivory Coast 546
15.3.2.4 The Gulf of Nicoya Fishery, Costa Rica 546
15.3.2.5 The Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta Fishery, Colombia 547
15.3.3 Mangrove---Fishery Relationships: Conclusions 547
15.4 Coral ReefOffshore Fisheries Connectivity 550
15.4.1 Connectivity Between Reef Fisheries and Mangroves/Seagrasses 551
15.4.2 Connectivity Between Reefs 552
15.4.3 Coral Reefs and Pelagic Fisheries 552
15.5 Management and Governance Issues 555
15.5.1 Balance Between Small-Scale and Industrial Fisheries 556
15.5.2 Connectivity 557
15.5.3 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 558
References 559
16 Conservation and Management of Tropical Coastal Ecosystems 567
16.1 Introduction 567
16.2 The Values of Coastal Ecosystems 568
16.3 Issues for Coastal Ecosystems in the Tropics 569
16.4 Goals for Conservation and Management of Tropical Ecosystems 573
16.4.1 Providing for Resilience 574
Box 16.1 Maintaining resilience through MPAs 575
16.4.2 Maintain/Restore Connectivity 576
16.4.3 Protect Water Quality 577
16.4.4 Conservation and Recovery of Species-at-Risk 578
Box 16.2 Conservation and recovery of species at-risk: the Banggai cardinalfish 578
16.4.5 Conservation of Representative Samples of Species and Assemblages 579
Box 16.3 Approaches to conservation planning for MPAs 580
16.4.6 Understanding the Socio-Economic Context 581
16.4 Case studies in the assessment of the socio-economic context for management 587
16.4.7 Stakeholder Participation 588
Box 16.5 Community volunteers working for coral reef conservation 590
16.4.8 Education 591
Box 16.6 Educating children about marine conservation: SeaWeek on Lord Howe Island 593
16.4.9 Manage at the Most Appropriate Spatial Scale 594
Box 16.7 Case studies in regional approaches to conservation and sustainable use 596
16.5 Conclusion 598
16.6 Appendix 599
References 602
Index 608