New Frontiers in Integrated Solid Earth Sciences (eBook)

Foreword 5
Preface 8
Introduction 10
Contents 11
Contributors 13
New Frontiers in Integrated Solid Earth Sciences 16
Perpectives on Integrated Solid Earth Sciences 17
Introduction 5
Mass Transfer 18
Continental Topography: Interplay of Deep Earth and Surface Processes 18
Geoprediction: Observation, Reconstruction and Process Modelling 19
Observing the Present 19
Reconstructing the Past 19
Lithosphere Deformation Behaviour 20
Process Modelling and Validation 20
Challenges and New Developments 20
Integrated Approach to Selected Natural Laboratories and Analogues 21
Coupled Deep Earth and Surface Processes 21
Coupled Process Modelling and Validation 21
ILP Activities Within the International Year of Planet Earth 21
Task Force 1: Earth Accretionary Systems (in Space and Time) (ERAS) 22
Task Force 2: Tectonic Causes of Volcano Failure and Possible Premonitory Signals 24
Task Force 3: Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Interactions 25
Task Force 4: Ultra-Deep Continental Crust Subduction (UDCCS) 27
Task Force 5: Global and Regional Parameters of Paleoseismology Implications for Fault Scaling and Future Earthquake Hazard
Task Force 6: Sedimentary Basins 31
Task Force 7: Temporal and Spatial Change of Stress and Strain 33
Task Force 8: Baby-Plumes Origin, Characteristics, Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Interaction and Surface Expression 35
Regional Coordinating Committee Europe: TOPO-EUROPE 37
Regional Coordinating Committee Asia: TOPO-CENTRAL-ASIA: 4D Topographic Evolution in Central Asia 39
Regional Coordinating Committee DynaQlim: Upper Mantle Dynamics and Quaternary Climate in Cratonic Areas 40
International Continental Scientific Drilling Programme (ICDP) 42
Perspectives on Integrated Solid Earth Sciences 43
References 48
3D Crustal Model of Western and Central Europe as a Basis for Modelling Mantle Structure 54
Introduction 54
Basic Model Assumptions 55
Crustal Model of Western and Central Europe 58
Southeastern Europe 59
Italian Peninsula 62
Iberian Peninsula and Central Atlantic Margin 63
England and North Atlantic Margin 65
Central Europe 66
Northern and Eastern Europe 68
EuCrust-07: Statistical Analysis and Difference with Previous Models 68
Lithology of the European Crust 75
Conclusions 79
References 81
Thermal and Rheological Model of the European Lithosphere 85
Introduction 85
Thermal Model of the European Lithosphere 86
Lithosphere Thickness of Europe 90
Introduction to the Strength Calculation 94
Rheological Model of the European Lithosphere 95
Effective Elastic Thickness ( Te ) of the European Lithosphere 104
How Reliable are the Strength Estimates? 109
Conclusions 111
Appendix: Anharmonicity Correction 112
Voigt-Reuss-Hill (VRH) Averaging 112
References 112
Thermo-Mechanical Models for Coupled Lithosphere-Surface Processes: Applications to Continental Convergence and Mountain Building Processes 116
Introduction 116
Interplays Between Surface and Tectonic Processes 119
Tectonic Forcing on Surface Processes 119
Coupling Between Denudation and Tectonic Uplift Due To Isostasy 119
Coupling Between Surface Processes and Horizontal Strains 120
Coupling of Surface Processes and Tectonic Input/Reaction in Full Scale Mechanical Models: Major Stages 121
Surface Processes Modelling: Principles and Numerical Implementation 121
Basic Models of Surface Processes 122
Alternative Models of Surface Processes 124
Structure and Rheology of the Lithosphere 125
Rheology 125
Thermal Model 128
Implementation of Coupled Models 128
Semi-Analytical Model for Intermediate Tectonic Convergence Rate 128
Unconstrained Fully Coupled Numerical Model 130
Experiments 131
Semi-Analytical Model 131
Case 1: No Surface Processes: ''Subsurface Collapse'' 132
Case 2: No Shortening: ''Erosional Collapse'' 133
Case 3: Dynamically Coupled Shortening and Erosion: ''Mountain Growth'' 134
Coupled Regime and Graded Geometries 136
Sensitivity to the Rheology and Structure of the Lower Crust 137
Comparison With Observations 137
Numerical Experiments 138
Conclusions 142
Appendix 1: Model of Flexural Deformation of the Competent Cores of the Brittle-Elasto-Ductile Crust and Upper Mantle 144
Appendix 2: Model of Flow in the Ductile Crust 145
Appendix 3: Analytical Formulation for Ascending Crustal Flow 148
Appendix 4: Numerical Algorithm for the Full Thermo-Mechanical Model 150
References 151
Achievements and Challenges in Sedimentary Basin Dynamics:A Review 157
Introduction 158
Deep Controls on the Architecture of Sedimentary Basins 159
Constraints on Basin Fill and Crustal Configuration by Seismic Imaging 159
Industrial Reflection Seismic and Supporting Potential Field Data 159
Crustal-Scale Reflection and Refraction Seismology 160
Continental-Scale Maps of the European Moho and Lithospheric Thickness 161
Mantle Tomography and Other Controls on Lithospheric Thickness and Mantle Heterogeneities 166
Lithosphere Rheology and Tectonic Controls on Basin Segmentation and Topography 171
Lithosphere Strength and Deformation Mode 173
Lithospheric Folding: An Important Mode of Intraplate Basin Formation 176
Linking the Sedimentary Record to Processes in the Lithosphere 179
Mechanical Controls on Basin Evolution: Europe's Continental Lithosphere 179
Dynamics of Sedimentary Systems and Deformation Patterns 186
Compressional Basins: Lateral Variations in Flexural Behaviour and Implications for Paleotopography 186
Topographic Expression of Compressional and Extensional Flat-Ramp Systems 187
Coupling versus Decoupling between Forelands and Orogenic Wedges and Development of Thrust-Top Pull-Apart Basins 189
Intracratonic Basins 191
Passive Margins 196
Source Sink Processes: Coupling of Climate, Uplift and Erosion, Subsidence and Sedimentation 200
Requirements for Data Acquisition and Development of New Analytical Techniques 201
Chronostratigraphy, Sedimentation Rates and Timing of Maximum Burial 201
Paleo-Thermometers, Rates and Timing of Unroofing 202
Pioneer Studies for Calibrating Paleo-Elevations 205
New Developments in Numerical and Physical Modelling of Erosion, Sedimentation and Mountain Building Processes 206
Coupled Kinematic and Mechanical Models of Thrust Belt Evolution 206
Numerical Stratigraphic Models Coupling Erosion-Transport-Sedimentation 206
Physical Experiments and Parameters Controlling Continental Topography and Erosion 208
Synergy between Analogue and Numerical Modelling Addressing Coupling Between Deep Earth and Surface Processes and Paleo-Topography 211
New Trends in Integrated Basin Modelling Studies and Validation 214
Dynamic Controls on Reservoir Quality in Foreland Fold-and-Thrust Belts 216
Pore Fluid Pressure, Fluid Flow and Reactive Transport 216
3D Kinematic Evolution of Complex Structures 220
Geomechanics, Fracturing and Reservoir Prediction 220
Aspects of Future Basin Study 221
References 226
Recent Developments in Earthquake Hazards Studies 246
Introduction 246
The Science of Earthquakes Understanding the Hazard 247
Background 247
Diffuse Plate Boundaries 249
The Earthquake Cycle 249
Earthquake Triggering: Natural and Man-Made 251
Intraplate Earthquakes 252
Transient Aseismic Slip and Subduction Zone Seismic Tremor 254
The Paleoseismic Record Paleoseismic Record 254
Lessons from the Earthquake Record 256
A Survey of Earthquake Hazards 256
Earthquake Engineering and Building Codes 258
Future Directions in Earthquake Science 260
Enhanced Seismic Monitoring 260
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Global Positioning Systems 261
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) 263
Shakemaps of Seismic Intensities 264
Earthquake Forecasting vs. Earthquake Prediction 265
Earthquake Early Warning 266
Closing Comments 267
References 269
Passive Seismic Monitoring of Natural and Induced Earthquakes: Case Studies, Future Directions and Socio-Economic Relevance 272
Introduction 272
Quantifying the Earthquake Process 273
Case Studies 275
Monitoring the Failure Process: Acoustic Emission Activity and Fracturing in the Laboratory 276
Tracking the Hydro-Frac: Passive Seismic Monitoring in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 278
Induced Seismicity at Crustal Depth: The KTB Deep Borehole Observatory 279
The Parkfield Earthquake Experiment 280
The San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth 283
Outlook and Future Directions 286
NanTroSEIZE: Monitoring of a Locked Segment Along the Convergent Plate Boundary Offshore of Japan 286
The Istanbul/Marmara Branch of the North Anatolian Fault Zone in NW Turkey: Locked or Creeping? 289
Concluding Remarks 291
References 293
Non-volcanic Tremor: A Window into the Roots of Fault Zones 297
Introduction 297
Episodic Tremor and Slip 298
New Opportunities 299
Fundamental Properties of Tremor 300
Locating Non-volcanic Tremor 302
Waveform Envelope Location Methods 303
Amplitude Based Location Methods 303
Small Aperture Seismic Array Based Location Methods 304
Phase Based Location Methods 304
The Future of Tremor Location 305
Developing a Physical Model for Tremor 305
The Fluid Flow Model for Non-volcanic Tremor 305
Case Study I: Non-volcanic Tremor in Japan 306
Low Frequency Earthquakes 306
Tremor Migration 308
A Wide Range of Slow Events 308
Case Study II: Stress Interactions of Tremor with Other Earth Processes 309
Earthquakes Influencing Tremor 310
The Tides Influencing Tremor 312
Theoretical Models of Slow Slip (and Tremor) 312
Discussion and Outstanding Questions 314
Understanding Why Tremor Occurs in Certain Places 314
Tremor Locations: a Broad Depth Distribution in Some Areas? 315
Relationship Between Tremor and Slow Slip 316
Seismic Hazard Implications 317
Summary 319
References 319
Volcanism in Reverse and Strike-Slip Fault Settings 325
Introduction 325
Reverse Fault Tectonics and Volcanism 326
Field Examples 326
Intra-Plate Setting 327
Subduction Zones 328
Analogue Modelling Data 333
Magma Paths 335
Strike-Slip Fault Tectonics and Volcanism 336
Field Examples 336
Intra-Plate Setting 336
Subduction Zones 337
Transcurrent Faults and Calderas 341
Analogue Modelling 344
Magma Paths 346
Petrologic and Geochemical Effects 347
Conclusions 349
References 351
DynaQlim 0 Upper Mantle Dynamics and Quaternary Climate in Cratonic Areas 359
Introduction 359
Observational Basis 360
Geodetic Observations 360
Evidence from Geophysical Observations of Lithosphere Structure 362
Seismicity and Stress-Field 366
Cryosphere and Palaeoclimate 368
Current Models and Problems to be Solved 369
Climate 371
Ten Million Year Time Scale 372
Late-Pleistocene Ice Ages 372
Last Ice Age, Postglacial Transition 373
Holocene and Neoglacial Change 375
Connections to Upper Mantle Dynamics 375
Challenges with DynaQlim 375
References 377
Ultradeep Rocks and Diamonds in the Light of Advanced Scientific Technologies 383
Introduction 383
Methods 384
Focused Ion Beam-Assisted Transmission Electron Microscopy 384
Synchrotron Infrared (IR) Microspectroscopy 386
Samples from Earths Interior: From What Depth Do They Originate? 386
Ultradeep Xenoliths from Kimberlitic Sources 386
Diamonds from Kimberlitic Source 387
Submicrometre- and Nanoscale-Size Inclusions in Kimberlitic Diamonds 389
Ultrahigh-Pressure Metamorphic Rocks from Collisional Orogens 390
Garnet Peridotites from UHPM Terranes 390
Diamonds from Ultrahigh-Pressure Terranes 392
Nanoscale Fluid and Solid Inclusions in Metamorphic Diamonds 393
Some Notes Related to Microdiamond Morphologies 396
Diamonds from Oceanic Island, Ophiolite, and Forearc Settings 397
Summary Statements 400
References 401
New Views of the Earth0s Inner Core from Computational Mineral Physics 406
Introduction 383
Computational Methods 384
Ab Initio Techniques 384
Simulation of Pressure 386
Simulation of Temperature 409
The Ab Initio Simulation of Iron and Iron Alloys in the Earths Inner Core 412
Constraints on the Structure of Iron in the Inner Core 387
The Effect of Light Elements on the Stable Phase of Iron in the Earth's Inner Core 389
Constraints on the Composition and Structure of the Earth's Inner Core from Calculated Seismic Wave Velocities 390
Summary and Conclusions 418
References 401
Index 422