Karst Environments (eBook)

Karst Environments 1
Preface 4
Acknowledgements 5
Chapter 1 8
Introduction 8
1.1 The Importance of High Mountain Karren 8
1.2 The History of Research on High Mountain Karren 10
1.2.1 Overview 10
1.2.2 Development of Terminology 11
1.2.3 Modern Classifications 12
1.3 Major Characteristics of High Mountain Karstification 13
Chapter 2 17
Research Sites and Methods 17
2.1 Research Sites 17
2.2 Methods 20
2.2.1 Mapping 20
2.2.2 Profiling 21
2.2.3 The Role of Cracks in the Development of Karren Forms 24
2.2.4 Dating Karren Forms 24
2.2.5 Measuring Meanderkarren 25
Chapter 3 31
Age and Characteristics of High Mountain Karren Formation 31
3.1 Age of Karren and the Rate of Their Development 31
3.2 General Characteristics of High Mountain Karren Formation 33
3.2.1 Diversity of Forms 33
3.2.2 Karren Zonation 35
3.2.3 Magnitude, Frequency and Rate of Karren Formation 36
3.2.4 The Role of Slope Direction and Jointing Direction on Karren Formation 40
Chapter 4 42
Karren Features 42
4.1 .Karren Features of Flowing Water Origin 42
4.1.1 Features of Sheet Water Origin 42
4.1.1.1 Rillenkarren (Solution Grooving) 42
4.1.1.2 Solution Bevels (Ausgleichsfläche) 46
4.1.1.3 Trittkarren 46
Types of Trittkarren 47
Morphology of Trittkarren 52
Development of Trittkarren 57
4.1.1.4 Solution Ripples 60
4.1.1.5 Scallops 60
4.1.2 Forms Created by a Rivulet 61
4.1.2.1 Rinnenkarren (runnels, channels) 61
Rinnenkarren and Their Types 63
Morphology of Rinnenkarren 68
The Causes of the Development of Rinnenkarren 75
The Various Development Types of Rinnenkarren 77
4.1.2.2 Wandkarren (Wall Karren, Wall Runnels) 96
The Spreading of Wandkarren 97
Size and Morphology of Wandkarren 97
Types of Wandkarren 103
Development of Wandkarren 108
4.1.2.3 Meanderkarren (Meänderkarren, Meandering Runnels) 111
General Characteristics of Meanderkarren 111
Morphology and Development of Meanderkarren 112
Types of Meanderkarren 124
4.2 .Karren Forms Originated by Seepage 136
4.2.1 Grikekarren (Kluftkarren, Cleftkarren) 136
4.2.2 Kamenitzas 139
4.2.3 Pitkarren 145
4.2.4 Schichtfugenkarren (Bedding Grikes) 147
4.2.5 Napfkarren 149
4.3 .Karren Developed Due to Rain Drops 149
4.3.1 Rainpits 149
4.4 .Karren Forms of Complex Development 150
4.4.1 Karren Cavities 150
4.4.2 Spitzkarren (Pinnacle Karren, Solution Spikes) 154
4.4.3 Karren Mounds 155
4.4.4 Heads of Bed Karren 157
4.4.5 Clints, Clasts, Karrennasen 157
4.5 .Karren Features Development Due to Organic Acids 157
4.5.1 Root Karren 157
Chapter 5 158
Karren Assemblages 158
5.1 Types of Karren Assemblages 161
5.2 Surface Development on the Area of the Assemblages 164
5.3 Surface Development of Glacier Valleys Due to Karren Formation 165
Chapter 6 167
Local Karren Belts 167
6.1 .Karren Belts on a Slope 167
6.2 .Zonality (Belts) Developed on Karren Forms 172
6.3 .Development of the Slope 174
Chapter 7 182
Coalescing of Karren Forms 182
7.1 .The Forms of Coalescing 185
7.1.1 Forms Developing When They Are Connected to Each Other 185
7.1.2 The Forms of Union 186
7.2 .Types and Causes of the Form Connection 188
7.2.1 Connections Due to Primary Causes 188
7.2.1.1 Connections Which Are Independent of Rock Structure 188
7.2.1.2 Forms Connected to Each Other Controlled by Rock Structure 199
7.2.2 Forms Connecting into Each Other Due to Secondary Causes 202
7.3 .United Karren Forms Types 208
7.3.1 The Union of Similar Karren Forms 208
7.3.2 The Union of Different Karren Forms 211
7.4 .Karren Cells 212
7.5 .Relationship System Between the Levels of Karren Formation in High Mountain 216
Anchor 1 217