Science of Microscopy (eBook)

Peter Hawkes received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Cambridge in 1963, after which he continued his research on electron optics, and in particular on aberration theory and image processing, in the Cavendish Laboratory until 1975. During this period, he was a Fellow of Peterhouse and of Churchill College. He then moved to the CNRS laboratory of Electron Optics in Toulouse, of which he was Director in 1987, and published extensively on electron lens aberrations and theoretical aspects of image processing. In 2002, he was awarded the status of Emeritus CNRS Director of Research. He has been President of the French Microscopy Society and was Founder-President of the European Microscopy Society. He is author or editor of numerous books on electron optics and image processing, notably the three-volume Principles of Electron Optics (with E. Kasper). He is general editor of the series Advances in Imaging & Electron Physics and edited a special volume on the 'Beginnings of Electron Microscopy' with contributions from many of the founders of the subject. His most recent interest is the introduction of image algebra into electron optical thinking and he has published many historical articles on forgotten aspects of the subject. He has been a member of the editorial boards of Ultramicroscopy and the Journal of Microscopy for many years. He has been a member of the advisory boards of numerous European and International Congresses on Electron Microscopy and was one of the founder-organizers of the series of Congresses on Charged-particle Optics, the third of which was organized by him in Toulouse in 1990. He is a fellow of the Optical Society of America and member of EMAG (Institute of Physics), the Microscopy Society of America, the European Microscopy Society, the French Microscopy Society and the Royal Microscopical Society. In 1983, he was awarded the Silver medal of the CNRS. John Spence received his PhD in Physics from Melbourne in 1973 followed by post-doctoral work in Oxford, UK. He joined John Cowley's electron microscopy group at Arizona State University in 1977 where he is Regent's Professor of Physics. His group has worked in many areas connected with the development of novel microscopies and diffraction physics, especially quantitative convergent-beam electron diffraction and the multiple-scattering inversion problem. Instrumentation projects have included a time-of-flight spectrometer for scanning tunnelling microscopy, a point-projection field-emission microscope for molecular imaging (both with Weierstall), cathodoluminescence for scanning transmission electron microscopy (with Yamamoto), development with Tafto of the ALCHEMI method for locating foreign atoms in crystals using channeling effects on X-ray production in TEM, and development of perhaps the first direct-detection CCD camera for TEM. He was co-editor for North America of Acta Cryst. for ten years, is a Fellow of the American Physical Society, the Institute of Physics, Churchill College, and Chair of the International Union of Crystallography Commission on Electron Diffraction. He is the author of two texts (one with Zuo) on electron microscopy, and a member of the Scientific Advisory committees of the Advanced Light Source and Molecular Foundry at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, and of the department of energy's BESAC committee. His current interests include lensless (diffractive) imaging with electrons or X--rays, and use of laser-aligned protein beams for protein crystallography.

Preface 5
References 11
References 11
Contents 13
Contributors 15
IMAGING WITH ELECTRONS 19
Atomic Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy 20
1 Introduction and Historical Context 20
2 Essential Theory 25
3 Instrumentation 46
4 Exit-Wave Reconstruction 60
5 Image Simulation 68
6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 74
Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy 82
1. Introduction 82
2. The STEM Probe 86
3. Coherent CBED and Ronchigrams 90
4. Bright-Field Imaging and Reciprocity 95
5. Annular Dark-Field Imaging 99
6. Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 114
7. X-Ray Analysis and Other Detected Signals in the STEM 124
8. Electron Optics and Column Design 126
9. Electron Sources 131
10. Resolution Limits and Aberration Correction 134
11. Conclusions 142
Scanning Electron Microscopy 150
1 Introduction 150
2 Conventional Scanning Electron Microscopy 156
3 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy 226
4 Scanning Electron Microscopy at Elevated Pressure 254
5 Ultrahigh Vacuum Scanning Electron Microscopy in Surface Science 262
6 Microanalysis in Scanning Electron Microscopy 263
7 Crystal Structure Analysis by Electron Backscatter Diffraction 269
Analytical Electron Microscopy 290
1 Introduction 290
2 Instrumentation 300
3 Fundamentals 327
4 Quantification 348
5 Resolution in Microanalysis 365
6 Elemental Mapping 375
7 Detection Limits in Microanalysis 391
8 Energy Loss Fine Structures 401
High-Speed Electron Microscopy 423
1 What Is High-Speed Electron Microscopy? 423
2 Technologies of DTEM 424
3 Limitations 438
4 DTEM Applications 450
5 Future 452
6 Conclusions 453
In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy 462
1 A Working Defi nition of in situ Transmission Electron Microscopy 462
2 Phase Transformations 464
3 Surface Reactions and Crystal Growth 480
4 Magnetic, Ferroelectric, and Superconducting Materials 493
5 Elastic and Plastic Deformation 503
6 Correlation of Structural and Electrical Properties of Materials 517
7 Liquid Phase Processes 522
8 Ion and Electron Beam-Induced Processes 527
9 Outlook 534
Cryoelectron Tomography (CET) 552
1 Introduction 552
2 Three-Dimensional Cryoelectron Microscopy 555
3 Major Difficulties in Cryoelectron Tomography 564
4 Perspectives: New Strategies and Developments 606
LEEM and SPLEEM 622
1 Introduction 622
2 Electron Beam– Specimen Interactions 623
3 Instrumentation 631
4 Electron Optics 636
5 Contrast 641
6 Applications 647
7 Spin-Polarized LEEM ( SPLEEM) 659
Photoemission Electron Microscopy ( PEEM) 674
1 Introduction 674
2 X-Ray PEEM 675
3 Uncorrected PEEM Microscopes 681
4 Aberration- Corrected PEEM Microscopes 688
5 Application: Magnetic Domain Imaging 695
6 Time-Resolved Microscopy 703
7 Conclusion 707
Aberration Correction 713
1 Introduction 713
2 Types of Aberration 714
3 Aberration Correction 723
4 Concluding Remarks 745
5 Appendix I 746
IMAGING WITH PHOTONS 765
Two-Photon Excitation Fluorescence Microscopy 766
1 Introduction 766
2 Brief Chronological Notes 768
3 Basic Principles on Confocal and Two-Photon Excitation of Fluorescent Molecules 769
4 Two-Photon Excitation 778
5 Fluorescent Molecules under TPE Regime 780
6 Optical Consequences of TPE 782
7 The Optical Setup 784
8 Conclusion 789
Nanoscale Resolution in Far-Field Fluorescence Microscopy 805
1 Introduction 805
2 The Resolution Limit 806
3 Axial Resolution Improvement by Aperture Enlargement: 4Pi Microscopy and Related Approaches 810
4 Breaking the Diffraction Barrier 826
5 Conclusion 843
Principles and Applications of Zone Plate X- Ray Microscopes 850
1 Introduction 850
2 Fresnel Zone Plates 859
3 X-Ray Microscopes 877
4 Applications 907
5 Conclusion 920
NEAR-FIELD SCANNING PROBES 942
Scanning Probe Microscopy in Materials Science 943
1 Introduction 943
2 Imaging at Atomic Resolution with Force Interactions 944
3 Imaging Properties: Advanced SPM Techniques 958
4 Future Trends 972
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy in Surface Science 983
1 Introduction 983
2 Basic Principles of STM Imaging 984
3 Tunneling Spectroscopy 996
4 STM at High and Low Temperatures 1010
5 Heterostructures and Buried Interfaces: BEEM, Quantum Size Effects, and Cross- Sectional STM 1021
6 STM Image Simulation 1030
Atomic Force Microscopy in the Life Sciences 1039
1 Introduction 1039
2 Instrumentation and Imaging 1044
3 Sample Preparation 1066
4 Imaging and Locally Probing Macromolecular and Cellular Samples: Examples 1072
Low-Temperature Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 1084
1 Introduction 1084
2 Design Principals 1088
3 Applications 1095
HOLOGRAPHIC AND LENSLESS MODES 1153
Electron Holography 1154
1 Introduction 1154
2 Measurement of Mean Inner Potential and Sample Thickness 1161
3 Measurement of Magnetic Fields 1164
4 Measurement of Electrostatic Fields 1185
5 High-Resolution Electron Holography 1195
6 Alternative Forms of Electron Holography 1197
7 Discussion and Conclusion 1202
Diffractive (Lensless) Imaging 1209
1 Introduction 1209
2 History 1210
3 Objects, Images, and Diffraction Patterns: Validity Domains of Approximations 1214
4 The HIO Algorithm and Its Variants 1218
5 Experimental Results 1224
6 Iterated Projections 1232
7 Coherence Requirements for CDI: Resolution 1234
8 Computer Processing Demands 1236
9 Summary 1237
The Notion of Resolution 1241
1 Introduction 1241
2 Classical Two-Point Resolution 1242
3 Resolution in the Spatial Frequency Domain: Diffraction Limit and Superresolution 1243
4 Deterministic Model-Based Resolution 1249
5 Statistical Model-Based Resolution 1253
6 Ultimate Model-Based Resolution 1271
7 Discussion and Conclusions 1273
Index 1279