Forest Management and the Water Cycle (eBook)

Contents 6
Forest Management and the WaterCycle – Introduction to the Challenge 10
Section I Forest and Water – Tree to SmallCatchment Processes in aChanging Environment 17
Chapter 1: Introduction 18
Reference 19
Chapter 2: Hydrological Effects on Below Ground Processes in Temperate and Mediterranean Forests 20
Introduction 20
Biogenic Causes of Soil Moisture Heterogeneity 21
Effects of Soil Water Deficit 23
Soil 23
Mycorrhizal Fungi 24
Fine Roots 26
Physiological Adaptation of Roots 28
Changes in Root Axial Conductivity and Hydraulic SafetyUnder Drought 29
Effects of Excess Soil Water 30
Soil 30
Mycorrhizal Fungi 31
Fine Roots 31
Physiological Adaptation of Roots 34
Conclusion and Outlook 35
References 35
Chapter 3: Above Ground Processes: Anticipating Climate Change Influences 45
Introduction 45
Elevated [CO2] Influences on Leaf to Tree Level Processes 48
Drought, Rising Temperature, and Extreme Events Influences on Leaf to Tree Level Processes 53
Influences on Hydraulic Structure of Trees 57
Influences on Tree Growth and Water Use Efficiency 60
Species Differences in Water Relations and Canopy Structure Across Europe 63
Canopy Atmosphere Interactions: Forest Influences on Climate 66
Conclusions 70
References 70
Chapter 4: Field Studies of Whole-Tree Leaf and Root Distribution and Water Relations in Several European Forests 79
The Importance of the Integrated Whole Tree Level Approach 79
Whole Tree and Stand Level Measurements 79
Studies of Water Storage and the Effectivity of Water Conducting Systems 82
Detail Studies of Water Redistribution Within Trees 85
Spatial Application: Tree to Stand Level Studies 88
Spatial Application: Landscape – Level Studies 92
Temporal Application: Combining Present Data with History 96
Conclusions 96
References 98
Chapter 5: Forested Water Catchments in a Changing Environment 103
Introduction: Catchments as Integrators 103
An Historical Controversy 104
Paired-Catchment Approach 105
Water Yield and Low Flows 106
The Affected Area and the Intensity of the Treatment 106
The Vegetation Type 107
The Soil and the Rooting Depth 108
The Amount of Precipitation 108
Snow and Other Seasonal Effects 108
The Time Factor 110
Floods 111
Water Quality 112
The Importance of Long-Term Catchment Studies in a Changing World 117
References 119
Chapter 6: Forest Development in the European Alps and Potential Consequences on Hydrological Regime 125
Introduction 125
Development of Forested Areas and Shrub Encroachment in the Alps 127
Development of Soil Stability in Alpine Regions 129
Effects of Change in Forested Area on Hydrology 131
Inf.luences of Different Site Conditions and Forest Types 134
General Conclusions and Management Implications for the Alps 135
Box 6.1 Terminology 126
References 136
Chapter 7: Effects of Climate Change on the Vulnerability of Norway Spruce Stands – Soil Hydrological Constraints for Forest Management in Austra's Lowlands 141
Introduction 141
Distribution and Vulnerability of Norway Spruce (Picea abies (L.)) in Lowlands 142
Soil Water Regime in Norway Spruce Dominated Forests 144
The Fürstenfeld Study 144
Weather Conditions in the Year 2003 and 2004 145
Soil Water Content 145
Sap Flow 146
The Kreisbach Study 149
Conclusions and Implications for Forest Management 151
References 152
Chapter 8: Observed Climate Change in Croatia and Its Impact on the Hydrology of Lowlands 155
Introduction 155
Environmental System of Lowland Forests 157
Climate 157
Geology, Soils and Vegetation 158
The Observed Changes of Groundwater Tables 159
The Reconstruction of the Historic State of Groundwater Tables 161
Assessment of Morphology of Hydromorphic Soils 163
Calculation of Water Logging Status from Groundwater Data 164
Prediction of the Average Water Logging Rate (WLR) from Soil Morphology 166
The Possibilities of Water Table Management to Mitigate Water Scarcity Impact 170
Forest Canopy Treatment 172
Runoff Retention in the Landscape 172
Management of Forest Defoliators 173
Drought Indices 173
Conclusion 174
References 174
Chapter 9: The Case of Yatir Forest 177
Introduction 177
Aims of Forest Establishment 177
Ecological Background 177
The Species Planted 178
Research Aims at Yatir 179
Materials and Methods 180
Research Sites and Trees 180
Instrumentation and Measurements 181
Sap Velocity Measurements and Hourly Sap Flux Calculations 181
Soil Volumetric Water Content 182
The Meteorological Tower 182
Evapotranspiration 182
Water-Balance Partitioning in the Forest 183
Daily, Seasonal and Annual Evapotranspiration in Relationto Meteorological Parameters, Soil Water Availability and Topography 183
Measurements in 1992–1993 183
Measurements During 2003–2006 185
Transpiration in Relation to SWC, ET and PET 185
Slope Orientation Influence on Transpiration 187
Division of Evapotranspiration into Transpiration and Ecosystem Evaporation 188
Physiological Activity Under Semi-arid Climate 190
Results From a Provenance Trial at Yatir 192
Habitat Effects on Adaptive Genetic Variation in Pinus halepensis (Aleppo Pine) Provenances 193
Site Effects on Physiological Aspects 193
Conclusions 197
References 198
Chapter 10: How Mediterranean Deciduous Trees Cope with Long Summer Drought? The Case of Quercus pyrenaica Forests in Wester Spain 201
Introduction 201
Study Species 203
Study Area 204
Temporal Dynamic of Soil Moisture. Estimation of Stand Evapotranspiration 204
Daily and Seasonal Evolution of Stomata Activity. Estimating Tree Transpiration 208
Lessons Learn 211
Quercus pyrenaica Oak Is Only Slightly Water-LimitedDuring Summer Drought 211
Quercus pyrenaica Oaks Depend on Thick Porous-Weathered Bedrocks 211
Quercus pyrenaica Is a Well-Performed Deciduous Oak to Cope with Increasing Summer Drought 212
References 213
Section II Forest Structures, Managementand Water Fluxes 216
Chapter 11: Introduction 217
References 218
Chapter 12: Changes in Forest Cover and its Diversity 220
Introduction 220
The Climax Forest Cover in Europe 221
Zoogenic and Anthropogenic Effects on European Forests 226
Forest Cover Transition 228
References 232
Chapter 13: Afforestation Strategies with Respect to Forest–Water Interactions 236
Introduction 236
Effects of Afforestation on Water Yields and Quality 237
Water Yields 237
Afforestation and Changes in Water Yields in Bulgaria 239
Water Quality 240
Energy Wood Plantations in Central Europe and Their Hydrological Constraints 242
Water Constraints on Afforestationin the Mediterranean Region 245
Conclusions 249
References 250
Chapter 14: Tree Species’ Tolerance to Water Stress, Salinity and Fire 257
Introduction 257
Water Stress 258
Drought 258
Hypoxia 261
Salinity 265
Fire 266
Conclusion 269
References 269
Chapter 15: Overland Flow, Soil Erosion and Stream Water Quality in Forest Under Different Perturbations and Climate Conditions 272
Introduction 272
Mechanisms and Processes of Overland Flow and Soil Erosion 274
Runoff and Overland Flow Processes 274
Soil Erosion Processes 276
Mediterranean, Semiarid Climate 276
Runoff and Soil Erosion 278
Runoff Water Quality 282
Semi-humid Northern Climate 283
Overland Flow Yield 284
Overland Flow Quality 286
Mild, Humid Climate 288
Overland Flow Yield 289
Overland Flow Quality 291
Summary and Conclusions 293
References 295
Chapter 16: Forest Management Effects on Below-Ground Hydrological Processes 299
Intrinsic Variability of Soil Hydrologic Processes 299
Above-Ground Biomass 302
Soil Surface Interface 306
Vadose Zone and Groundwater 308
Effects of Forest Management on the Quality of Seepage Waters 311
Type of Cutting and Regeneration 312
Harvest Intensity 313
Ditching 314
Outlook 314
References 315
Chapter 17: Adjustment of Forest Management Strategies to Changing Climate 321
Introduction 321
Major Water-Related Forest Management ConcernsUnder Climate Change Uncertainties 322
Boreal Forests of Fennoscandia 322
Temperate Mountain and Lowland Zones 324
The Mediterranean Region 326
Adaptation of Forest Management Strategies Aimedat Protecting Forest Hydrological Functions 328
Boreal Forests 328
Temperate Mountain and Lowland Forests 330
Mediterranean Forests 331
Conclusions 334
References 334
Section III Scales and Approaches forForest – Water Interactions 338
Chapter 18: Introduction 339
Chapter 19: Forest Management and the Water Cycle: An Integrated Introduction to Scaling 341
Introduction 341
Forest Ecohydrological Processes and Scaling 344
Scales and Scaling in Fluvial Systems 346
GIS Based Scaling, Modelling and Monitoring 348
Conclusions 351
References 352
Chapter 20: Multidimensionality of Scales and Approaches for Forest–Water Interactions 356
Introduction 356
Stable Conditions: Water, Quantity, Quality and Management – Impact of Forest Management on Water Quantity and Quality 357
Forests and Water Retention Capacity 357
Five Most Important Indicators for Water Quality and Quantity Influenced by Different Forest Management Practices 358
Best Management Practice Guidelines for Water Quality and Quantity in the Frame of Close-to-Nature Forest Management 361
Drought and Decay of Woodlands 363
Exposure of European Forests to Drought 363
Boreal Forests 366
Atlantic Forests 366
Continental Forests 366
Mediterranean Forests 366
Forest-Tree Response at Various Spatio-Temporal Scales 366
Drought and Adaptive Forest Management Strategies 368
Forest Measures for Flood Protection 372
Landscape 372
Forest Conversion 373
Afforestation 373
Forest Management 373
River Course 374
Limitation and Scales 374
Water Quality 375
Conclusions 379
References 380
Chapter 21: Fundamentals of Model Scaling in Forest Ecology 386
Introduction 386
Application of Scaling in Forest Ecohydrology 387
Functional–Structural Plant Models and Systems Biology 390
Model-Based Reasoning: The Connecting Link Between Observation and Quantification 393
Scale Identification and Scaling 394
Conclusion 396
References 396
Chapter 22: Up- and Downscaling Model Approaches for Water Relations in Forest Management from Plot to Landscape Level 401
Introduction 401
Scaling Options 403
Upscaling 403
Downscaling 405
Mean Values of Fluctuating Processes 407
Examples 408
Groundwater 408
Road Runoff 410
Catchment Yield Modeling 412
Drought Index 417
Conclusions 419
References 419
Chapter 23: A Small Catchment Scale Approach for Modeling Effects of Forest Management on Water Cycle in Boreal Landscape 422
Introduction 422
Catchment Disaggregation in Hydrological Models 424
HRU for the Peatland Forest 426
Water Cycle and Forest Management in Boreal Peatlands 428
HRU for the Upland Forest 429
Water Cycle and Forest Management in Boreal Upland Areas 432
Remarks 433
References 434
Chapter 24: Large Scale Approach to Forest and Water Interactions 437
Introduction 437
Dealing with Ecohydrological Processes on Larger Scales 438
Precipitation, Soil Water and Discharge at Different Scales in Dependency upon Forestry and Land Cover Dynamics 438
Approach of Hydrological Processes in Dependency of Forests and Forest Site Properties on Larger Scales 438
Hydrological System Behaviour at Catchment Scale 440
Contribution of Remote Sensing Techniques to Assess Water and Forests Interactions at the Meso- and Macroscale 441
Hydrochemical Interactions of Forest and Water and Its Impacts on Larger Scales 442
Integrated Land and Water Management at Larger Scale 443
The Effects of an Integrated Forest and Watershed Management at Larger Scales – Myths and Realities 443
Land-Use and Water Management Governance: the European Water Framework Directive and the European Floods Directive 446
Conclusions 450
References 451
Chapter 25: Model-Based Assessment of Forest Land Management on Water Dynamics at Various Hydrological Scales – A Case Study 455
Introduction 455
Soil Properties 456
Upscaling 458
Integrated Modeling 461
Conclusions and Outlook 470
References 470
Chapter 26: Typological Up-Scaling of Wooded Peatlands 472
Introduction 472
Features of Aerial Photo Mapping of the Peatlands 474
Features of Peatland Mapping 474
Aerial Photo Mapping of Peatlands 476
Analyses of Wooded Peatlands 477
Ortophoto and Ground Level Parameterisation of Wooded Peatlands 477
GIS Based Analysis of Wooded Peatland Ecotopes 480
Results 483
Ortophoto and Ground Level Parameterisation of Wooded Peatlands 483
GIS Based Analysis of the Wooded Mire Ecotopes 488
Conclusions 493
References 494
Chapter 27: Difficulties of Scaling in Forest and Water Management in Urban Areas: Social and Institutional Dimension 498
Introduction 498
Urban Growth and Industrialization 499
Transboundary Waters 501
Institutional and Organizational Framework 502
Jurisdictional Boundaries 504
Discussion 505
Conclusion 506
References 506
Chapter 28: Synthesis and Outlook 508
Introduction 508
Forest Management and Science 509
Forest Services and Costs 510
Holism and Reductionism in Forest Management and the Water Cycle 511
Conclusion 512
References 512
Taxonomic Index 514
Subject Index 516