Forests, Trees and Human Health (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Chapter 1: Forests, Trees and Human Health and Well-being: Introduction 10
1.1 Background 10
1.2 Fragmented Research 11
1.3 COST Action E39 – Forests, Trees and Human Health and Well-Being 12
1.3.1 Objectives 13
1.3.2 Scientific Approach 13
1.3.2.1 Crosscutting Approaches 13
1.4 A New Perspective on Human Health and Well-Being 14
1.5 Health-Related Products from Natural Sources 16
1.6 Therapeutic Interactions: Plants and Landscapes, Garden Therapy and Ecotherapy 17
1.7 Land Use, Accessibility to Green Areas and Health Effects 19
1.8 Settlements and Localities: Health and Nature Where We Live 22
1.9 Health Policies and Economics 24
1.10 Future Research Needs 25
1.11 Structure of the Book, and the Action: Five Themes 27
Chapter 2: Urban Forests and Their Ecosystem Services in Relation to Human Health 30
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Forest Classification Systems 31
2.3 Urban Forest and Green Spaces: Typologies and Indicators 32
2.4 The Forest and the City: Implication on Urban Environment 34
2.4.1 Urban Forests and the Sustainable City 34
2.4.2 Impacts of Urban Forests on Natural Urban Environments 36
2.4.2.1 Hydrology 36
2.4.2.2 Climate: The Urban Heat Island Effect 37
2.4.2.3 Air Quality 38
2.4.2.4 Biodiversity 40
2.5 Environment Quality and Human Health 40
2.5.1 Urban Forests as a Social Resource 41
2.6 Forest Dependent Communities 42
2.7 Conclusion 43
References 43
Chapter 3: Forest Products with Health-Promoting and Medicinal Properties 48
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Historical Perspectives for Medicinal Plants and Their Current State in Europe 49
3.2.1 Medicinal Plants in the History of Mankind 49
3.2.2 State of Plant-Derived Products in Europe 51
3.2.3 Potential Role of Medicinal Plants in Human Health and Critical Topics 52
3.3 Evaluation of Forest Products 53
3.3.1 Introduction 53
3.3.2 Extraction and Chemical Analysis 53
3.3.3 Biomedical Evaluation 54
3.3.4 In Vitro Test Systems 55
3.3.5 In Vivo Test Systems 56
3.4 Health-Promoting Effects of Honey and Walnuts 56
3.4.1 Introduction 56
3.4.2 Honey 57
3.4.3 Walnut 57
3.5 Medicinal Properties of Pine Resin and Chios Mastic Gum 58
3.5.1 Pine Resin 58
3.5.2 Chios Mastic Gum 60
3.6 Edible Wild Forest Mushrooms as a Sourceof Health-Promoting Compounds 61
3.6.1 Introduction 61
3.6.2 Antimicrobial Activity 62
3.6.3 Anti-Tumor Activity 63
3.7 Nutritional and Medicinal Properties of Forest Berries 64
3.8 Health-Promoting By-Products from Forest Industries 67
3.8.1 Xylitol – A Caries-Preventing Sugar 68
3.8.2 Sitosterol/Sitostanol for Reducing Blood Serum Cholesterol 68
3.8.3 HMR Lignan – A New Anticarcinogen and Antioxidant from Spuce Knots 69
3.8.4 Other Potential Bioactive Compounds from Knots and Bark 71
3.8.5 Concluding Remarks 71
3.9 Health Benefits of Volatile and Non-Volatile Terpenoids in Some Cupressaceae 72
3.9.1 Health Benefits Reported in the Literature 73
3.10 Conclusions 75
References 75
Chapter 4: Negative Aspects and Hazardous Effects of Forest Environment on Human Health 84
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Negative Aspects 85
4.2.1 Tree, Park, and Forest Management-Related Effects 85
4.2.1.1 Planting of Proper Tree Species, Identification and Management of Hazardous Trees 85
Problematic Trees 85
Tree Stability Assessment 88
4.2.1.2 Deterioration of Tree Quality by Pests and Pathogens – Plant Protection Activity 91
4.2.2 Wild Animal-Related Effects 96
4.3 Hazardous Effects 98
4.3.1 Allergic Factors 98
4.3.1.1 The Allergy 98
4.3.1.2 Environmental Causes and Epidemiology 98
4.3.1.3 Immunological Mechanisms in Allergic Response 99
4.3.1.4 Clinical Symptoms 100
4.3.1.5 The Most Common Allergens 100
Grasses 100
Mugwort (Artemisia spp.) 101
Sorrel, Dock (Rumex spp.) 101
Ragweed (Ambrosia spp.) 101
Alder (Alnus glutinosa, A. incana, A. viridis) and Hazel (Corylus avellana, C. colurna) 101
Ash (Fraxinus excelsior, F. angustifolia, F. ornus) 102
Birch (Betula verrucosa, B. alba) 102
Members of the Family Cupressaceae 102
Olive Tree (Olea europaea) 102
Plane Tree (Platanus x acerifolia, P. acerifolia, P. orientalis, P. occidentalis) 102
Oak (Quercus spp.) 103
4.3.1.6 Diagnosis and Treatment of Allergies 103
Avoidance 103
Medication 103
Immunotherapy 104
Allergy Treatment with Phytotherapy and Homeopathy 104
Adverse Reactions to Herbal Medicinal Products 104
4.3.2 Toxic and Poisonous Mushrooms and Plants 105
4.3.2.1 Mushrooms 106
Hepatotoxic Species 107
Nephrotoxic Species 107
Neurotoxic Species 107
Mushrooms Containing Psilocybin – Psilocin 107
Mushrooms Containing Muscimol – Ibotenic Acid 107
Mushrooms Containing Muscarine – Histamine 108
Gastrointestinal Irritant Species 108
Other Toxic Species 108
4.3.2.2 Plants 109
Aconitum – Aconitum napellus, A. vulparia (Ranunculaceae) 109
Horse Chestnut – Aesculus hippocastanum (Hippocastanaceae) 109
Anemone – Anemone alpina (Ranunculaceae), Buttercup-Ranunculus bulbosus (Ranunculaceae) 109
Belladonna, or Deadly Nightshade – Atropa belladonna (Solanaceae) 110
Bittersweet – Solanum dulcamara (Solanaceae) 110
Meadow Saffron – Colchicum autumnale (Liliaceae) 110
Helleborus, or Christmas Rose – Helleborus niger, H. viridis (Ranunulaceae) 110
European Holly – Ilex aquifolium (Aquifoliaceae) 110
Lily-of-the-Valley – Convallaria majalis (Lilaceae) 111
Mezereon – Daphne mezereum (Thymelaeaceae) 111
Golden Chain Tree – Laburnum anagyroides, Cytisus laburnum (Leguminosae) 111
Common Yew – Taxus baccata (Taxaceae) 111
Veratrum – Veratrum album (Liliaceae) 111
4.3.3 Arthropod-Related Effects 112
4.3.3.1 Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens 112
Mediterranean Spotted Fever 113
Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis 113
Lyme Disease or Borreliosis 113
Tularemia 114
Babesiosis 114
Tick-Borne Encephalitis 115
Prevention of Contacts with Ticks and Their Removal 115
4.3.3.2 Insects 115
Biting Blood Feeders 116
Stinging Insects 117
Insects Covered with Venomous Hairs 119
Processionary Moths (Thaumetopoea spp.) 119
Brown-Tail Moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) 120
Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar) 121
Pine-Tree Lappet Moth (Dendrolimus pini) 121
General Recommendations for Management of Caterpillar Envenomation 121
Blister and Oil Beetles 122
4.3.4 Snake-Related Effects 122
4.3.5 Predatory Mammals-Related Effects 124
4.3.6 Human Diseases Induced by Pathogens and Transmitted by Forest Mammals 126
4.3.6.1 Rabies 126
4.3.6.2 Alveolar echinococcosis 127
4.4 Conclusions 128
References 129
Chapter 5: Health Benefits of Nature Experience: Psychological, Social and Cultural Processes 133
5.1 Introduction 134
5.2 Fundamental Definitions 135
5.2.1 From Trees and Forests to the Experience of Nature 135
5.2.2 Health and Well-Being 137
5.2.3 On Processes that Link Nature with Health and Theories About Them 138
5.3 Historical Background 139
5.3.1 The Evolution of the Health Sciences 140
5.3.2 Intellectual, Economic, and Demographic Trends 141
5.3.3 The Development of Approaches to Health Care Involving the Natural Environment 141
5.3.4 The Development of Environmental Design Professions Concerned with Access to Nature 142
5.3.5 The Development of the Environmental Movement 143
5.3.6 The Development of Multiple Use Management of Land 144
5.3.7 Summary 146
5.4 Current Theoretical Perspectives 146
5.4.1 Environmental Preference 147
5.4.1.1 Biophilia 147
5.4.1.2 Savannah Theory 149
5.4.1.3 Prospect-Refuge Theory 150
5.4.1.4 An Informational Perspective on Environmental Preferences 151
5.4.1.5 Fractal Geometry and the Fractal Dimension 153
5.4.1.6 Closing Comments on Environmental Preference 154
5.4.2 Theories About Psychological Restoration 154
5.4.2.1 Psychoevolutionary Theory 155
5.4.2.2 Attention Restoration Theory 156
5.4.2.3 Extensions of Research Concerned with Restorative Environments 158
5.4.2.4 Closing Comments on Psychological Restoration 160
5.4.3 Learning and Personal Development 160
5.4.3.1 Closing Comments on Learning and Personal Development 162
5.5 Issues for Future Research 163
5.5.1 Additional Topics for Research 163
5.5.2 Challenges to Evolutionary Assumptions 164
5.5.3 Individual Differences in Responses to Nature 165
5.6 Conclusions 166
References 166
Chapter 6: Health Benefits of Nature Experience:The Challenge of Linking Practice and Research 175
6.1 Introduction 176
6.2 Challenges of Joining Practice and Research 178
6.2.1 Who is Responsible? 178
6.2.2 What Constitutes Acceptable Evidence? 180
6.2.3 Can the Evidence be Used in Practice? 183
6.3 Conclusions 185
References 186
Chapter 7: Health Benefits of Nature Experience: Implications of Practice for Research 189
7.1 Introduction 190
7.2 Complex Relations: A Plausible Scenario 191
7.3 A Conceptual Framework for Indentifying Sources of Complexity in Implications of Practice for Research 193
7.4 Illustrative Practical Applications that Present Challenges for Research 199
7.4.1 BTCV Green Gym, UK 199
7.4.2 Walking the Way to Health (WHI) 202
7.4.3 Seniors Active in Green Rooms, The Netherlands 203
7.4.4 Forest Schools 204
7.4.5 I’DGO (Inclusive Design for Getting Outdoors) 205
7.4.5.1 Target Group: Older People Aged over 65 205
7.5 Barriers and Facilitators 205
7.6 Conclusions 206
References 207
Chapter 8: Contributions of Natural Environmentsto Physical Activity 210
8.1 Introduction 211
8.1.1 What Is Physical Activity and Why Is It Important? 211
8.1.2 Why Is There Concern About Physical Activity Levels? 211
8.1.3 Why Might Natural Environments Be Importantfor Physical Activity? 212
8.1.4 The Effectiveness of Interventions to Alter Population Level Health-Related Behavior 212
8.1.5 The Success of Environmental Interventions to Improve Physical Activity Rates 213
8.1.6 What Do We Need to Know? 213
8.2 Conceptual Framework and Structure of the Overview 215
8.3 Natural Environments and Physical Activity in General 218
8.3.1 What Do We Mean by Physical Activity in General? 218
8.3.2 Why Record or Measure Physical Activity in General? 218
8.3.3 How Is Physical Activity Measured? 218
8.3.4 What Does the Published Literature Tell Us About Physical Activity and Green or Natural Environments? 219
8.4 Walking and Cycling 221
8.4.1 Introduction 221
8.4.2 Walking and Cycling for Transport 222
8.4.3 Walking and Cycling for Recreation and Exercise 224
8.5 Children’s Physical Activity in Green Spaces 227
8.5.1 Introduction 227
8.5.2 Where Do Children Usually Play? 229
8.5.3 Does a Natural Environment Promote Children’s Physical Activity? 229
8.5.3.1 Do Parks in the Neighborhood Promote Children’s Physical Activity? 229
8.5.3.2 Do Other Natural Environments in Neighborhoods Promote Children’s Physical Activity? 230
8.5.4 Does Green Space in and Around the School Environment Promote Children’s Physical Activity 231
8.6 Benefits of Physical Activity in Green Space Versusin Urban and Indoor Settings 231
8.6.1 Main Theories Explaining the Beneficial Effects of Green Space 231
8.6.2 Exercise-Related Empirical Support 232
8.6.2.1 Running 232
8.6.2.2 Walking 235
8.6.2.3 Playing in the Green Space and Children 235
8.7 Summary, Conclusions and Future Directions 235
8.7.1 Natural Environments and Physical Activity in General 236
8.7.2 Walking and Cycling for Active Transportor for Recreation and Exercise 237
8.7.3 Children’s Outdoor Physical Activity 238
8.7.4 Benefits of Physical Activity in Green Space Versus Urban and Indoor Settings 238
8.7.5 Future Directions and Issues 239
8.7.6 Recommendations 241
References 242
Chapter 9: Natural Elements and Physical Activity in Urban Green Space Planning and Design 249
9.1 Introduction 250
9.2 Physical Attributes of Green Space 251
9.2.1 Accessibility 251
9.2.2 Facilities 255
9.2.3 Conditions 256
9.2.4 Safety 257
9.2.5 Aesthetics 258
9.2.6 Climate and Microclimate 260
9.3 Designing Parks for Physical Activity: Examples Throughout Europe 260
9.3.1 Regional Project: The Emscher Landscape Park 261
9.3.1.1 Emscher Park Cycle Track and Industrial Heritage Bike Trail in the Ruhr Area 261
9.3.1.2 Project Elements that Contribute to the Promotion of Physical Activity 262
9.3.2 Municipal Projects 264
9.3.2.1 Helsinki, Finland1 264
The Recreational Trail System for Bicycling and Cross-Country Skiing 264
The Bicycle Route Network 265
Project Elements that Contribute to the Promotion of Physical Activity 266
The Cross-Country Skiing Trail Network 266
Promoting the Trail Network in Helsinki 267
9.3.2.2 Lisbon, Portugal 268
Alameda Keil do Amaral (Keil do Amaral Promenade), Parque Florestal de Monsanto 268
Project’s Elements that Encourage and Promote Physical Activity 268
9.3.2.3 Padua, Italy 270
The Green U Project – Riparian Green Spaces as the Foundation of the Urban Green System 270
Project Elements that Contribute to the Promotion of Physical Activity 273
9.3.3 Local Projects 274
9.3.3.1 Lisbon/Loures, Portugal 274
Parque Tejo e Trancão (Tagus and Trancão Urban Park), Parque das Nações 274
Project’s Elements that Encourage and Promote Physical Activity 276
9.3.3.2 Helsinki, Finland 278
Maunula Trail 278
Project Elements that Contribute to the Promotion of Physical Activity 278
9.4 Conclusion and Planning and Design Guidelines 279
9.4.1 Planning and Design Guidelines 279
9.4.1.1 Accessibility 279
9.4.1.2 Features 280
9.4.1.3 Safety 280
9.4.1.4 Conditions 281
9.4.1.5 Aesthetics 281
9.4.1.6 Climate and Microclimate 281
References 282
Chapter 10: Motivating People to Be Physically Active in Green Spaces 287
10.1 What Motivates People to Participate in Physical Activity? 288
10.2 Why Aren’t People Physically Active? 289
10.2.1 The Formation of Outdoor Physical Activity Preferences 291
10.2.2 Constraints to Outdoor Physical Activities 291
10.2.3 The Negotiation of Constraints 293
10.3 Strategies to Promote Physical Activity in Green Spaces 294
10.3.1 Correlation Between Opportunity and Motivation 294
10.3.2 Step by Step Strategies 296
10.3.3 Recommendations for Strategies Aimed at Promoting Physical Activity 300
10.4 Good Practice: Examples from Europe 301
10.4.1 Walking the Way to Health (WHI) – England 301
10.4.2 Calorie Maps – Wales 302
10.4.3 Get to Know Your Neighborhood – ‘KjenmannStjørdal’, Norway 303
10.4.4 Children’s Trekking Club, Norway 305
10.5 Summary and Conclusions 305
10.6 Basic Steps for Providing Effective Programsfor Physical Activity in Green Areas 307
References 307
Chapter 11: Nature-Based Therapeutic Interventions 312
11.1 Background – A Shift in Health Policy Towards People’s Own Health Capacities 313
11.2 A Brief Historical Perspective on the Relation Between Clients and Nature Settings 314
11.2.1 From Ancient Time Till the Twentieth Century 314
11.2.2 From 1900 Till Today: Nature Based Therapeutic Interventions Versus Health Design and -Planning 315
11.3 Healing Mechanisms 317
11.3.1 The Evolutionary Approach 318
11.3.2 The Activity Approach 319
11.3.3 The Coping – Communication Approach 320
11.3.4 The Ecological Approach 322
11.4 Therapy Programs in Nature-Based Therapeutic Settings 324
Box 11.1 Nature-assisted therapy in Swedish forests 326
11.5 Health Design and Nature-Based TherapeuticIntervention Programs 327
11.5.1 Nature-Based Therapeutic Settings 327
Box 11.2 The rehabilitation garden in Alnarp (Photo 11.1 and 11.2) 331
Box 11.3 The healing forest garden Nacadia 332
11.6 Nature-Based Therapeutic Interventions Today – Education, Research and Practice 333
11.7 Future Perspectives – Suggested Aims of Research Projects 335
11.7.1 Some Concluding Hypotheses 335
11.7.2 Scientific Methods and Approaches Concerning Nature-Based Therapeutic Interventions 336
11.7.2.1 RCT-Intervention Studies 336
11.7.2.2 National Register of Diseases 337
11.7.2.3 Triangulation Techniques 337
11.7.2.4 Action Research 338
11.7.3 Defining Tools with Reference to Measuring Health Outcomes 338
11.7.3.1 Back to Labor Market 338
11.7.3.2 Symptoms of Illness 339
11.7.3.3 Functioning 339
11.7.3.4 Wellbeing 339
11.7.3.5 Cost-Benefit 340
11.7.4 Recommendations 340
References 341
Chapter 12: Outdoor Education, Life Long Learning and Skills Development in Woodlands and Green Spaces: The Potential Links to Health and Well-Being 346
12.1 Introduction 347
12.2 Links Between Education and Health 348
12.3 Outdoor Learning and Theories of Learning 349
12.3.1 What Does Outdoor Learning Involve? 350
12.3.2 Theories of Learning 353
12.3.2.1 Constructivism 357
12.3.2.2 Multiple Intelligences 357
12.3.2.3 Social Learning Theory 358
12.3.3 Outdoor Learning in Europe 358
12.4 Health and Well-Being Outcomes: General Exposure to Nature 360
12.4.1 Physical Exercise and Improved Stamina 362
12.4.2 Restorative Benefits of Contact with Nature 362
12.4.3 Physical and Psychological Barriers to Accessing Nature 364
12.5 Health and Well-Being Outcomes: ‘Active Hands On’, and Intensive or Extensive Contact with Nature Through Outdoor Learning 365
12.5.1 New Knowledge, Skills and Competencies 365
12.5.2 Self-Esteem and Social Skills 366
12.5.3 Attitudes and Behaviors 368
12.6 Discussion and Conclusions 369
12.6.1 Practice 371
12.6.2 Policy 371
12.6.3 Research 372
References 372
Chapter 13: Measuring Health Benefits of Green Space in Economic Terms 377
13.1 Introduction 377
13.2 Benefits from Physical Activity 378
13.3 Approach to the Economic Analysis of Health Benefits 379
13.4 Quantifying the Health Benefits from Physical Activity 380
13.4.1 Reductions in Mortality 380
13.4.2 Averted Deaths 383
13.4.3 Reductions in Morbidity 384
13.5 Valuing Reduced Mortality and Morbidity 384
13.5.1 Reduced Mortality 384
13.5.2 Reduced Morbidity 388
13.6 Psychological Benefits 390
13.7 Cost and Benefits of Green Space Provision 391
13.7.1 Autonomous Use 392
13.7.2 Created Use Through Health Programs and Increased Access 393
13.8 Air Pollution Benefits 395
13.8.1 Air Pollution Adsorption Effect of Trees 396
13.8.2 Epidemiological Impact 397
13.8.3 Health Benefits 398
13.8.4 Woodland and Green Space Location 400
13.9 Conclusions 400
References 401
Chapter 14: Postscript: Landscapes and Health as Representations of Cultural Diversity 405
14.1 Introduction 405
14.2 Landscapes and the Challenges of Modern Life Styles 406
14.3 Close-to-Nature Landscapes as Cultural Constructions 406
14.4 Culture, Recreation and Health and Well-Being 407
14.5 Landscape and Diversity 408
14.6 Cultural Diversity and Healthy Landscapes 408
14.7 Conclusion 410
References 410
Index 412