Taphonomy (eBook)

Peter Allison graduated from the University of Hull with a Geology B.Sc. in 1983. After a short spell as a journalist writing market surveys for Industrial Minerals Magazine he went back to university to do a Ph.D. at the University of Bristol, graduating in 1987. Following post-doctoral positions at the University of Washington’s Friday Harbor Laboratories and the Department of Geology at Kochi University, Japan, he took a faculty position at the Postgraduate Research Institute for Sedimentology at the University of Reading. From there he joined the Earth Science and Engineering Department at Imperial College in 1997.David J. Bottjer was born in New York City and attended Haverford College outside of Philadelphia (where he majored in Geology at neighboring Bryn Mawr College), and received an M.A. from the State University of New York at Binghamton and his Ph.D. from Indiana University (1978). After leaving Indiana he spent a post-doctoral year with the United States Geological Survey at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. He began as Assistant Professor at the University of Southern California in 1979, where he is currently Professor of Earth and Biological Sciences and Chair of the Department of Earth Sciences. He has engaged in extensive professional service through his career, including a past editorship of Palaios, a present editorship of Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, and election to the presidency of the Paleontological Society for 2004-2006

Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributors 10
Chapter 1: Taphonomy: Bias and Process Through Time 14
1 Introduction 15
1.1 Taphonomy: A Brief History 16
2 Is Taphonomic Bias Uniform? 17
2.1 Biomolecular Innovation 18
2.2 Secular Trends in Ocean Chemistry and Skeletal Mineralogy 19
2.3 Biological Evolution 20
2.4 Temporal Trends in Conserving Environments 22
3 Taphonomy: A Prospectus? 24
References 25
Chapter 2: Taphonomic Overprints on Phanerozoic Trends in Biodiversity: Lithification and Other Secular Megabiases 31
1 Introduction 32
2 Lithification and Diagenesis in the Fossil Record 35
2.1 Time-Series Analysis of Lithification and Alpha Diversity: A Global Perspective 36
2.2 Time-Series Analysis of Lithification and Alpha Diversity: A Regional Perspective 44
2.2.1 Cenozoic of New Zealand 44
2.2.2 Paleogene of the Gulf Coastal Plain 47
2.3 Within-Interval Analysis of Lithification and Alpha Diversity: A Local Perspective 49
2.4 Influence of Lithification and Diagenesis on Preservational Quality: Implications for Taxonomy 51
2.4.1 Direct Observation of Fossil Specimens 53
2.4.2 Other Studies 61
3 Exploring Other Taphonomic Trends in the Quality of the Phanerozoic Fossil Record 62
3.1 Preservation as Casts and Molds 62
3.2 Lagerstätten and the Preservation of Soft-Bodied Fossils 64
3.3 Concentrations of Fossils 66
3.4 Silicification 67
3.5 Phosphatization 71
4 Discussion 72
4.1 Evaluation of the Paleobiology Database in Capturing Taphonomic Trends 72
4.2 Research Opportunities and the Mitigation of Taphonomic Biases 76
4.2.1 Taphonomic Biases and the Biodiversity Record 76
4.2.2 Implications for Taxonomic and Morphologic Analyses 77
5 Conclusions 80
6 Appendix 82
References 82
Chapter 3: Taphonomic Bias in Shelly Faunas Through Time: Early Aragonitic Dissolution and Its Implications for the Fossil Record 90
1 Introduction 91
2 Environments of Dissolution 92
2.1 Seafloor Diagenesis 92
2.2 Taphonomically Active Zone (TAZ) 93
2.3 Shallow Sub-TAZ Burial Diagenesis 95
3 Taphonomic Windows 95
3.1 ‘Skeletal Lagerstätten’ 95
3.2 Other Deposits Capturing Biodiversity 100
3.2.1 Storm and Shell Beds 100
3.2.2 Shell Plasters 104
3.2.3 Hardgrounds 104
3.2.4 Shoal Deposits 105
4 Discussion 106
4.1 Taphonomic Gradients and Molluscan Preservation: A Model 106
4.2 Molluscan Preservation During ‘Calcite’ and ‘Aragonite Seas’ 108
5 Conclusions 108
References 109
Chapter 4: Comparative Taphonomy and Sedimentology of Small-Scale Mixed Carbonate/Siliciclastic Cycles: Synopsis of Phanerozoic Examples 117
1 Introduction 118
2 Small-Scale Sedimentary Cycles 121
2.1 Defining Cycles 121
2.2 Identifying Analogous Phases of Cycles 122
3 Examples of Small-Scale Cycles in the Phanerozoic 125
3.1 Middle Cambrian: Great Basin USA 125
3.1.1 Proximal Cycles 128
3.1.2 Distal Cycles 130
3.2 Late Ordovician Eastern North America131
3.2.1 Proximal Cycles 131
3.2.2 Distal Cycles 135
3.3 Early Devonian Mdaouer-el-Kbir and Khebchia Formations, SW Morocco139
3.3.1 Proximal Cycles 139
3.3.2 Distal Cycles 140
3.4 Middle Devonian Hamilton Group of New York144
3.4.1 Proximal Cycles 145
3.4.2 Distal Cycles 147
3.5 Lower Jurassic: Lias UK 147
3.5.1 Proximal Cycles 147
3.5.2 Distal Cycles 151
3.6 Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous India155
3.7 Upper Cretaceous: Greenhorn Formation, Western Interior, USA 156
3.7.1 Proximal Cycles 157
3.7.2 Distal Cycles 159
3.8 Cenozoic: Ashiya Group, Japan, and Punta Judas Formation, Costa Rica 160
3.8.1 Proximal Cycles 160
3.8.2 Distal Cycles 162
4 Discussion: Synopsis of Examples 162
4.1 Basal Condensed Shell Bed Taphofacies 163
4.1.1 Base of Cycle Shell Debris Beds 163
4.1.2 Gray Marl Beds with Thin Condensed Hashes 169
4.1.3 Biostromes-Bioherms 169
4.2 Dark Mudrocks 170
4.2.1 Dark Laminated Shales 170
4.2.2 Gray Mudstones and Siltstones 174
4.3 Proximal Siltstones and Sandstones 178
4.4 Diagenetic Carbonates 181
5 Inferred Environmental Changes Through Small-Scale Cycles: Implications for Cycle Genesis 184
5.1 Environmental Energy 184
5.2 Oxygenation and Geochemistry 185
5.3 Sedimentation Rates and Time-Averaging 186
5.4 Episodicity and Dynamics of Sedimentation 186
5.5 Overview 189
6 Long-Term Trends in Cyclic Taphofacies 190
7 Summary: Toward General Cyclic Taphofacies Models 192
References 196
Chapter 5: Taphonomy of Animal Organic Skeletons Through Time 209
1 Introduction 210
2 Organic Skeletons 215
3 Chemosystematics 217
4 Diagenesis 217
4.1 Molecules Are Not Introduced from Sediment 217
4.2 Components Contributing to the Composition of the Fossil 218
4.3 Implications for Kerogen Formation 220
4.4 The Rate of Diagenetic Change 223
5 Future Directions in Molecular Taphonomy 224
6 Appendix: Main Analytical Methods Applied to Organic Remains 225
6.1 The Soluble Fraction 225
6.2 The Insoluble Fraction 225
6.3 Thermal Maturation Experiments 227
6.4 Investigating Morphology 228
References 228
Chapter 6: Molecular Taphonomy of Plant Organic Skeletons 232
1 Introduction 233
1.1 Aims of This Chapter 233
1.2 Caveats and Barriers to Understanding Resistant Bio- and Geomacromolecules 234
2 Leaves and Cuticles 235
2.1 Leaf and Cuticle Preservation 235
2.2 Polymerization and Future Research Directions 241
3 Xylem (Including Wood), Fruit Walls and Seed Coats 243
4 Flowers 246
5 Spores and Pollen 246
6 Phytoplankton and Algal Cysts 247
6.1 Chlorophyta and Prasinophyta 247
6.2 Dinoflagellates 248
6.3 Acritarchs 249
7 Conclusions and Implications 250
7.1 Plant Evolutionary Constraints and Temporal Bias 250
7.2 Implications for Applied Paleobotany 250
7.2.1 Floras and Vegetation Reconstruction, Dating First Occurrences Etc. 250
7.2.2 Geochemical Applications 250
7.2.3 Ultrastructure, Taxonomic Characteristics and Chemotaxonomy 251
References 252
Chapter 7: The Relationship Between Continental Landscape Evolution and the Plant-Fossil Record: Long Term Hydrologic Controls on Preservation 257
1 Introduction 258
2 Factors Influencing Plant-Part Preservation 260
2.1 Plant-Part Decay Rates 260
2.2 Relationship Between Rates of Decay and Sedimentation 262
2.2.1 Subaqueous Environments 262
2.2.2 Subaerial Environments 264
3 Models of Stratigraphic Frameworks and Landscape Evolution 265
3.1 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy 266
3.2 Graded Profiles, Paleosols, and Landscape Evolution 267
4 A Model for Plant-Part Preservation in Continental Landscapes 269
5 Case Studies 272
5.1 Plant Assemblages in Aggradational/Degradational Landscapes 273
5.1.1 Paleogene Weißelster Basin, Central Europe 273
5.1.2 Upper Triassic Chinle Formation, Southwestern United States 276
5.1.3 Lower Triassic Katberg Formation, South Africa 278
5.2 Plant Assemblages in Aggradational Landscapes 280
5.2.1 Eocene Willwood Formation, Western United States 280
5.2.2 Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation, Western United States 283
6 Conclusions 285
References 287
Chapter 8: Hierarchical Control of Terrestrial Vertebrate Taphonomy Over Space and Time: Discussion of Mechanisms and Implications for Vertebrate Paleobiology 294
1 Introduction 295
1.1 Top-Down Versus Bottom-Up Controls on Terrestrial Taphonomy 295
1.2 Hierarchical Integration of Terrestrial Vertebrate Taphonomy 298
2 The Structure of Vertebrate Bone 299
3 The Terrestrial Taphonomic Hierarchy 300
3.1 Microscale Processes 302
3.1.1 Surface Processes 302
3.1.2 Subsurface Processes 305
3.2 Mesoscale Processes 308
3.2.1 Surface Processes 308
3.2.2 Subsurface Processes 310
3.3 Macroscale Processes 312
3.3.1 Surface Processes 312
3.3.2 Subsurface Processes 313
4 Large-Scale Spatio-Temporal Controls Over Taphonomic Processes 315
4.1 Geophysical Dynamics 315
4.2 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide 317
4.3 Orbital Cycles in Solar Energy 317
5 Implications for the Terrestrial Vertebrate Fossil Record 318
5.1 The Existence of Terrestrial Megabiases 318
5.2 Examples of Changing Taphonomic Regimes Over Time 321
5.2.1 Paleozoic 321
5.2.2 Mesozoic 323
6 Implications for Vertebrate Paleobiology 326
6.1 Changing Patterns of Species Diversity 326
6.2 Model of Diversity Gradients and Climate Change 327
7 Summary and Conclusions 330
References 331
Chapter 9: Microtaphofacies: Exploring the Potential for Taphonomic Analysis in Carbonates 344
1 Introduction 345
2 Taphonomy in Carbonate Environments 346
2.1 Taphonomy as an Inherent Part of Microfacies Analysis 346
2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Taphonomy in Thin Section Analysis 348
3 Taphonomy of Paleogene Components in Thin Section 349
4 Taphonomic Attributes of Major Facies Types 357
4.1 Lateral and Temporal Facies Distribution 357
4.2 Facies Description and Distribution 358
4.2.1 Maerl Facies 358
4.2.2 Rhodolith Facies 359
4.2.3 Crustose Coralline Algal Facies 360
4.2.4 Coralline Algal Debris Facies 361
4.2.5 Peyssonneliacean Facies 362
4.2.6 Larger Nummulites Facies 362
4.2.7 Small Nummulites Facies 364
4.2.8 Orthophragminid Facies 365
4.2.9 Orbitolites Facies 366
4.2.10 Smaller Miliolid Facies 366
4.2.11 Alveolinid Facies 366
4.2.12 Acervulinid Facies 366
4.2.13 Coral Facies 367
4.2.14 Bryozoan Facies 367
4.3 Taphonomic Processes in Paleogene Carbonates of the Study Area 367
5 Discussion of the Distribution of Taphonomic Features Among and Between Time Units 369
6 Conclusions 370
References 371
Chapter 10: Taphonomy of Reefs Through Time 381
1 Introduction 382
2 Spatial and Temporal Variation in Modern Coral Reef Communities 383
3 Taphonomy of the Modern Coral Reef Environment 386
3.1 Loss due to Non-Preservation 387
3.2 Mode of Life, Skeletal Robustness and Rates of Skeletal Production 387
3.3 Bioerosion, Abrasion, Transport, and Burial 388
3.4 Early Diagenesis: Dissolution and Cementation 392
3.5 Changing Rates of Accumulation 393
3.6 Detection of Critical Events 394
4 Taphonomic Bias in Ancient Reefs: Insight from the Pleistocene Record 395
5 Changes in Reef Taphonomy Through the Phanerozoic 396
5.1 Rise of Biological Disturbance 396
5.2 Response to Increase in Disturbance 397
5.2.1 Secure Attachment to a Hard Substrate 399
5.2.2 Resistance to Partial Mortality 399
5.2.3 Regeneration After Breakage 401
5.2.4 Patterns of Sediment Removal and Storage 403
5.3 Response to Changing Seawater Chemistry: Secular Changes in Mineralogy 403
5.3.1 Changing Styles of Early Diagenesis 404
6 Current Global Change and Taphonomy 405
6.1 Loss of Herbivores and Higher Predators 405
6.2 Changing Storm Patterns 405
6.3 Rise in Sea Level 406
6.4 Rises in CO2 and Global Temperature 406
6.5 Changes in Sea-Water Chemistry 407
7 Summary 408
References 410
Chapter 11: Silicification Through Time 416
1 Introduction 417
2 Processes and Controls 418
2.1 Experiments 422
2.2 Skeletal Factors 422
2.2.1 Original Mineralogy 422
2.2.2 Distribution of Organic Material 423
2.2.3 Shell Ultrastructure 424
2.3 Diagenesis: Coupled Dissolution/Precipitation 424
2.4 Influence of Depositional Environment 426
2.4.1 Sequence Stratigraphic Framework 426
2.4.2 Silica Source 426
2.4.3 Other Factors 427
2.5 Models of Silicification 428
3 Silicified Faunas Through Time 428
3.1 Temporal Patterns 429
3.2 Global Ocean Chemistry 430
3.3 Spatial Patterns 431
4 Taphonomic Bias of Selective Silicification 431
4.1 Diversity Through Time 432
4.2 Paleoecology 432
5 Conclusion 434
References 435
Chapter 12: Phosphatization Through the Phanerozoic 440
1 Introduction 441
2 Phosphatization Processes and Biases 441
2.1 Phosphatization Processes 441
2.2 Phosphatization Biases 443
3 Temporal Distribution with Examples 444
3.1 Paleozoic Phosphatization 444
3.1.1 Cambrian Phosphatization 444
3.1.2 Ordovician Phosphatization 448
3.1.3 Silurian Phosphatization 449
3.1.4 Devonian Phosphatization 449
3.1.5 Carboniferous Phosphatization 449
3.1.6 Permian Phosphatization 450
3.2 Mesozoic Phosphatization 450
3.2.1 Triassic Phosphatization 450
3.2.2 Jurassic Phosphatization 451
3.2.3 Cretaceous Phosphatization 452
3.3 Cenozoic and Recent Phosphatization 453
3.3.1 Paleogene Phosphatization 453
3.3.2 Neogene Phosphatization 454
3.3.3 Pleistocene and Recent Phosphatization 454
4 Temporal Distribution Hypotheses 455
5 Biases Through Time 456
6 Summary 457
References 458
Chapter 13: Three-Dimensional Morphological (CLSM) and Chemical (Raman) Imagery of Cellularly Mineralized Fossils 462
1 Introduction 463
1.1 Cellularly Mineralized Fossils 465
2 Techniques 466
2.1 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) 466
2.2 Raman Spectroscopy 467
3 Applications 469
4 Mineralized Soft Tissues of Metazoans 469
4.1 Apatite-Mineralized Ctenophore Embryo 469
5 Permineralized Plants 471
5.1 Quartz-Permineralized Plant Axes 472
5.2 Calcite-Permineralized Plant Axes 473
6 Permineralized Organic-Walled Microorganisms 474
6.1 Quartz-Permineralized Acritarchs 475
6.2 Quartz-Permineralized Filamentous Microbes 477
6.2.1 Precambrian Cyanobacteria 477
6.2.2 Raman Index of Preservation (RIP) 482
6.2.3 Archean Bacteria 483
7 Summary 487
References 488
Chapter 14: Taphonomy in Temporally Unique Settings: An Environmental Traverse in Search of the Earliest Life on Earth 492
1 Introduction: A Preservational Dark Age? 493
2 Early Eden or Distant Planet? 494
3 New Taphonomic Windows for Old 495
4 Cellular Lagerstätten 496
5 The Challenge of Pseudofossils 498
6 An Early Earth Taphonomic Traverse 499
6.1 Pillow Basalts 500
6.2 Black Smokers 503
6.3 White Smokers 505
6.4 Seafloor Banded Cherts 505
6.5 Stromatolites 510
6.6 Siliclastics 514
7 Summary 516
References 517
Chapter 15: Evolutionary Trends in Remarkable Fossil Preservation Across the Ediacaran–Cambrian Transition and the Impact of Metazoan Mixing 524
1 Introduction 525
2 Siliceous (Gunflint-type) Preservation 528
3 Phosphatic (Doushantuo-type) Preservation 536
4 Siliciclastic (Ediacara-type) Preservation 545
5 Carbonaceous Film (Miaohe-type) Preservation 552
6 Carbonate (Tufa-like) Preservation 555
7 Conclusion 559
References 560
Chapter 16: Mass Extinctions and Changing Taphonomic Processes 573
1 Introduction 574
2 Previous Understanding of Biases in the Middle Permian to Early Triassic Fossil Record 576
2.1 End-Guadalupian Extinction and Lopingian Aftermath 576
2.2 End-Permian Mass Extinction and Early Triassic Aftermath 577
3 Methods 578
4 Results 579
4.1 Guadalupian–Lopingian Lazarus Effect 579
4.2 Patterns in Permian Silicification 581
4.3 Early Triassic Lazarus Effect 584
4.3.1 Controls on Early Triassic Lazarus Taxa 584
4.4 Patterns in Early Triassic Silicification 587
5 Conclusions 589
References 590
Index 595