EPSA Philosophical Issues in the Sciences (eBook)

Contents 
6 
Introduction 10
1 Contingency and Inherency in Evolutionary Developmental Biology 12
1.1 Introduction 12
1.2 The Historical Contingency of Evolution 13
1.3 Inherency Versus Contingency? 15
1.4 Conclusion 17
References 17
2 Dualities and Intertheoretic Relations 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 The Case of Electromagnetic Duality 20
2.2.1 EM Duality (1): Classical Electrodynamics 20
2.2.1.1 EM Duality in the Absence of Sources 20
2.2.1.2 Restoring EM Duality in the Presence of Sources 22
2.2.2 EM Duality (2): Quantum Electrodynamics 23
2.3 The Meaning of EM Duality 25
2.4 Concluding Remarks: Dualities and Physical Theories 27
References 28
3 Are `Identical Quantum Particles' Weakly Discernible Objects? 30
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Weak Discernibility 31
3.3 Remaining Worries 32
3.4 ``Physically Meaningful'' 34
3.5 The Quantum Case 35
3.6 Quantum Individuals? 36
3.7 Conclusion 38
References 38
4 Wave–Particle Duality in Quantum Optics 40
4.1 What Is Wave–Particle Duality? 40
4.2 The Pragmatic Attitude: Prepare Waves and Detect Particles 43
4.3 The Which-Way Experiments of Quantum Optics 44
4.4 On What There Is 47
References 50
5 Remarks on a Structural Account of Scientific Explanation 52
5.1 Introduction 52
5.2 Structural Explanation of the Uncertainty Relations 54
5.3 Models and Explanation 56
5.4 Understanding and Explanation 58
5.5 Structural Explanation, Structural Realism 59
5.6 Structural Explanation and Causality 60
References 61
6 Mathematical Knowledge and the Interplay of Practices 63
6.1 On the Notion of Mathematical Practice 63
6.2 From Mathematical Practice to the Interplay of Practices 65
6.3 Elementary and Advanced Mathematics 67
6.4 On the Objectivity of Mathematical Knowledge 69
References 71
7 Einstein, Kant, and the A Priori 73
8 Causal Models and the Asymmetry of State Preparation 82
8.1 Introduction 82
8.2 van Fraassen's Challenge 83
8.3 Causal Models 86
8.4 The Asymmetry of State Preparation 88
8.5 Conclusion 91
References 91
9 Bell-Type Inequalities from Separate Common Causes 93
9.1 Introduction 93
9.2 Common Causes for Correlated Events 94
9.3 A Common Screener-Off Is Not a Common Common Cause 95
9.4 ``Genuine'' Separate Common Causes 96
9.4.1 Relative Minimality of Derivations 96
9.4.2 ``Genuine'' Separate Screener-Offs 97
9.5 Summary 97
References 98
10 Entanglement, Upper Probabilities and Decoherence in Quantum Mechanics 99
10.1 Upper Probabilities in Quantum Mechanics 100
10.2 The Decay of the EPR State and the Existence of a Joint Distribution 105
References 108
11 Gauge Symmetry and the Theta-Vacuum 110
11.1 Two Kinds of Symmetry 110
11.2 Warm-Up Exercise: Faraday's Cube 112
11.3 The -Vacuum 113
11.4 Two Analogies 114
11.5 Are ``Large" Gauge Transformations Empirical? 116
11.6 Are They Really Gauge Transformations? 118
11.7 The -Vacuum in a Loop Representation 120
References 121
12 The Chemical Bond: Structure, Energy and Explanation 122
12.1 Introduction 122
12.2 Chemical Structure Theory 122
12.3 The Electron and the Chemical Bond 126
12.4 Quantum Mechanics and the Chemical Bond 129
References 131
13 Randomness, Financial Markets and the Brownian Motion: A Reflection on the Role of Mathematics in Their Interaction with Financial Theory After 1973 133
13.1 Introduction 133
13.2 Options: A Brief Overview 135
13.3 The Financial and Economic Context: Options' Markets and Financial Theory 135
13.4 The Founding Articles: Black and Scholes (1973) and Merton (1973) 139
13.5 The Consolidation of a Mathematical Finance Corpus: A First Phase (1973–1983) 141
13.6 Models of Mathematical Finance and the Practice on Financial Markets 142
13.7 Conclusion 143
References 143
14 Causation Across Levels, Constitution, and Constraint 145
14.1 Introduction: Scientific Explanation and Causal Explanation 145
14.2 Reducing Causation to Mechanism? 145
14.3 ``Top-Down'' and ``Bottom-Up'' Experiments 146
14.4 The Puzzle of Downward Causation 148
14.5 Analysing Interlevel Causation in Terms of Constitution 149
14.6 Downward Causation and Downward Constraints 150
14.7 Conclusion 154
References 154
15 Epistemic Consequences of Two Different Strategies for Decomposing Biological Networks 156
15.1 Introduction 156
15.2 Modeling Strategies in Systems Biology 157
15.3 Delineating Modules 159
15.4 Compatibility of Explanatory Goals with Delineation Methods 161
15.5 Epistemic Preconceptions: How Unbiased Is ``Neutral''? 162
References 164
16 Matter(s) in Relativity Theory 166
16.1 Introduction 166
16.2 Explicit Metric Dependence 168
16.3 Definitional Dependence on the Metric 169
16.3.1 Definitional Dependence at the Level of the Matter Fields 169
16.3.2 Constraint Dependence 171
16.3.3 Abstract Definitional Dependence 172
16.3.4 Interpretational Dependence 172
16.4 Mass–Energy–Momentum as a Relational Property 173
16.5 Conclusion 175
Funding 176
References 176
17 Individual Particles, Properties and Quantum Statistics 178
17.1 Introduction 178
17.2 Classical and Quantum Statistics 179
17.3 Attempts to Avoid the Conclusion 180
17.4 A New Suggestion 183
17.5 Further Remarks 184
17.6 Conclusions 187
References 187
18 Evolution and Directionality: Lessons from Fisher's Fundamental Theorem 189
References 197
19 Substantive General Covariance: Another Decade of Dispute 199
19.1 Orthodoxy and a Recent Challenge 199
19.2 Varieties of General Covariance 202
19.3 In Search of Substantive General Covariance 204
19.4 When (Not) to See Gauge Freedom 204
19.5 An Alternative Distinction Between Theories 206
19.6 In Search of Substantive General Covariance Again 208
19.7 Conclusion 210
References 210
20 Relativity, Locality and Tense 212
References 217
21 A Weylian Approach Towards Theories of Matter: Dynamic Agents and Geometrisation 219
21.1 Introduction 219
21.2 Matter Since Early Modern Times 219
21.3 Post-Weylian Applications 221
21.4 Wavering Between Freedom and Constraint 223
References 224
22 Mirroring and Understanding Action 227
22.1 Introduction 227
22.2 What Are Mirror Neurons for? 228
22.3 Motor Goals and Action Mirroring 230
22.4 From Motor Goals to Motor Intentions 232
22.5 Conclusions 235
References 237
23 Absolute Objects and General Relativity: Dynamical Considerations 239
23.1 Introduction 239
23.2 Anderson–Friedman Program: Standard Use 241
23.3 The Meaning of the Invariance Group 242
23.4 Definitions of the Invariance Group 244
23.5 GR and Absolute Objects: The Scalar Density Counterexample 245
23.6 Concluding Remarks 248
References 249
24 Empirical Foundation of Space and Time 250
24.1 Introduction 250
24.2 Empirical Definition of Space and Time Tags 251
24.2.1 Time 252
24.2.2 Distance and the Problem of ``Rest'' 253
24.2.3 Spatial Coordination 257
24.3 Inertial Motion 261
24.4 Absolute, Relative, Conventional 263
References 265
25 Making Contact with Observations 266
25.1 Introduction 266
25.2 The Lavoisier–Priestley Controversy 267
25.3 Calculating the Melting Point of Lead 272
25.4 Novel Predictions 273
25.5 Conclusion 276
References 276
26 The Formulation and Justification of Mathematical Definitions Illustrated By Deterministic Chaos 277
26.1 Introduction 277
26.2 Case Study: Topological Definitions of Chaos 278
26.3 Kinds of Justification 279
26.3.1 Natural-World-Justification 279
26.3.1.1 Devaney Chaos 280
26.3.2 Condition-Justification 281
26.3.2.1 Devaney Chaos 281
26.3.3 Redundancy-Justification 282
26.3.3.1 Devaney Chaos 282
26.3.4 The Role of These Kinds of Justification 282
26.4 Lakatos and the Importance of Proof-Generated Definitions 283
26.5 Conclusion 284
References 285
27 Do We Need Some Large, Simple Randomized Trials in Medicine? 287
27.1 Introduction: Why Randomize? 287
27.2 Selection and `Treatment' Bias 289
27.3 How Large an Effect Is Selection Bias Likely to Produce? 290
27.4 How Doll, Peto and Others Turn the Smallness of Selection Bias into an Argument for RCTs 291
27.5 Analysis of the Argument 293
27.5.1 The Issue of `External Validity' 293
27.5.2 Are Such Small Effects Worth Having? 296
27.6 Conclusion 298
References 298
28 Incontinence, Honouring Sunk Costs and Rationality 300
28.1 Honouring Sunk Costs 300
28.2 Honouring Sunk Costs, and the Two Systems of Reasoning View 301
28.3 Incontinence 304
28.4 Honouring Sunk Costs, Incontinence, and Rationality 306
References 307
29 Causal Fundamentalism in Physics 308
29.1 Introduction 308
29.2 The Dome and the Alleged Failure of Determinism (and Causality) 309
29.3 Is Newton's First Law Satisfied for the Mass on the Dome? 310
29.4 Is Newton's First Law Really Needed? Inertial Frames and the Notion of Time 312
29.4.1 Inertial Frames 313
29.4.2 The Notion of Time 314
29.5 Causality in Newtonian Mechanics and Beyond 315
29.6 Summary and Conclusions 317
References 318
Index 320