Carbonate Depositional Systems: Assessing Dimensions and Controlling Parameters (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Chapter 1: Parameters Controlling Modern Carbonate Depositional Environments: Approach 10
References 12
Chapter 2: Controlling Parameters on Facies Geometries of the Bahamas, an Isolated Carbonate Platform Environment 13
2.1 Introduction and Research History 13
2.1.1 Morphology 14
2.1.2 Origin and Tectonic Setting 16
2.2 Physical Parameters 18
2.2.1 Climate 19
2.2.2 Prevailing Currents 19
2.2.3 Wind Energy 23
2.2.4 Wave Energy 25
2.2.5 Tides and Tidal Currents 27
2.2.6 Energy, Water Depth, and Distance from Platform Edge 27
2.2.7 Sea-Surface Temperatures 29
2.2.8 Light and Radiation 30
2.3 Chemical Parameters 30
2.3.1 Water Chemistry 30
2.3.2 Inorganic Precipitation and Whitings 32
2.4 Fauna and Flora 34
2.4.1 Hermatypic Corals 35
2.4.2 Red Algae 39
2.4.3 Green Algae 40
2.4.4 Foraminifers 40
2.4.5 Sponges 41
2.4.6 Molluscs and Echinoderms 41
2.4.7 Microbial Mats 42
2.4.8 Bioerosion 45
2.5 Geometries of Facies Belts 46
2.5.1 Controls on Facies Geometries 48
2.5.1.1 Antecedent Topography 48
2.5.1.2 Energy Flux 51
2.5.1.3 Holocene Rise in Sea-level 54
2.5.2 Facies Geometries 56
2.5.2.1 Islands 56
2.5.2.2 Sand Bodies 57
Marine Sand Belts 60
Tidal Bar Belts 62
Eolian Ridges 63
Platform-Interior Sand Blankets 64
Tidal Deltas 64
2.5.2.3 Muddy Environments 65
2.5.2.4 Tidal Flats 66
2.5.2.5 Coralgal Reefs 67
2.5.2.6 Adjacent Slopes 68
2.5.2.7 Deep-Water Environment 72
2.5.3 Sea-Level Fluctuations 72
2.5.3.1 Lag Time 74
2.5.3.2 Unfilled Accommodation Space 74
2.5.3.3 Stratigraphic Evolution 75
References 77
Chapter 3: Belize: A Modern Example of a Mixed Carbonate-Siliciclastic Shelf 89
3.1 Introduction 89
3.2 Geography, Climate, and Oceanographic Setting 90
3.2.1 Climate 90
3.2.2 Air and Water Temperature 90
3.2.3 Wind 92
3.2.4 Wave Energy 95
3.2.5 Tides and Currents 97
3.3 Chemical Parameters 99
3.3.1 Salinity 101
3.3.2 Aragonite-Calcite Saturation 103
3.3.3 Holocene Dolomitization 103
3.4 Fauna and Flora 104
3.4.1 Corals 104
3.4.1.1 Coastal Reefs 104
3.4.1.2 Lagoon Patch Reefs 105
3.4.1.3 Barrier Reef 107
3.4.1.4 Northern Lagoon Foraminiferal Facies 109
3.5 Belize Shelf Facies Organization 112
3.5.1 Shelf Sediments 112
3.5.2 Barrier Reef 113
3.5.3 Offshore Atolls 120
3.5.4 Lagoon Reefs 122
3.5.5 Forereef Slope 125
3.5.6 Backreef Sand 128
3.5.7 Lagoon 128
3.5.8 Islands 130
3.6 Structural and Sedimentological Controls on Facies Distribution 132
3.6.1 Tectonics 132
3.6.2 Precursor Topography 136
3.7 Stratigraphic Evolution: Holocene Deposits 140
3.7.1 Accumulation Rates 140
3.7.2 Sea-Level History 140
3.8 Summary of the Belize Shelf Overview 146
Bibliography 147
Chapter 4: The Gulf: Facies Belts, Physical, Chemical, and Biological Parameters of Sedimentation on a Carbonate Ramp 152
4.1 Introduction 152
4.2 Sedimentary and Tectonic Setting 154
4.2.1 Overview of Ramp Sediments 156
4.2.2 Bathymetric Topography 157
4.3 Physical Parameters 159
4.3.1 Climate 159
4.3.2 Wind 159
4.3.3 Wave Energy 163
4.3.4 Tides: Interactions with the Sedimentary System 165
4.3.5 Currents and their Sedimentological Significance 168
4.3.6 Temperature 173
4.3.7 Light Penetration 174
4.4 Chemical Factors Influencing Carbonate Sedimentation 174
4.4.1 Salinity 174
4.4.2 Oxygen and Nutrients 175
4.4.3 The Carbonate System 176
4.4.3.1 Aragonitic, Supratidal Encrustations 177
4.4.3.2 Synsedimentary Submarine Lithification 178
4.5 Geometries of Facies Belts 179
4.5.1 Northern Gulf: Overview 179
4.5.2 Southern Gulf: Overview 184
4.5.3 Tidal Flats and Sabkhas 186
4.5.4 Sand Bodies 189
4.5.5 Lagoons 190
4.5.6 Islands 192
4.6 Controls of Structure and Antecedent Topography on Facies Distribution 194
4.7 Biotic Carbonate Sedimentation 194
4.7.1 Corals 196
4.7.1.1 Substratum for Coral Growth 196
4.7.1.2 The Distribution of Corals in The Gulf 196
4.7.1.3 Types of Frameworks 198
4.7.2 Foraminifera 200
4.7.3 Mollusca 201
4.7.4 Echinoderms 204
4.7.5 Plants 204
4.7.5.1 Calcareous Algae 204
4.7.5.2 Other Green and Brown Algae 205
4.7.5.3 Blue-Green Algae 206
4.7.5.4 Seagrass 207
4.7.5.5 Mangrove 207
4.8 Regional Comparison of Biogenic Carbonate Sedimentation 207
4.9 Summary 210
References 212
Chapter 5: Summary: The Depositional Systems of the Bahamas, Belize Lagoon and The Gulf Compared 221
5.1 Modern Analogues as Key to the Past 221
5.2 Setting and Geometries 222
5.2.1 Tectonic Setting 222
5.2.2 Geometries and Facies Relationships 223
5.3 Controls on Sediment Distribution 225
5.3.1 Climate 225
5.3.2 Wind 225
5.3.3 Tides, Currents, and Waves 226
5.3.4 Light 227
5.3.5 Sea Water Chemistry 229
5.4 Outlook 231
5.4.1 The Effect of Biologic Evolution and Other Changes with Time 231
5.4.2 Extratropical Realm and Deep-Water 231
5.4.3 Effect of Observation Time 232
References 232
Index 236