Yearbook on Space Policy 2007/2008 (eBook)

Preface 6
Table of Contents 8
List of acronyms 16
PART 1 The Year in Space 2007/2008 25
European space activities in the global 26
1. Geopolitical trends 26
1.1. Global economic outlook 26
1.2. Political developments 27
1.2.1. Europe 27
1.2.2. The United States 28
1.2.3. Russia 28
1.2.4. Japan 29
1.2.5. China 29
1.2.6. India 30
1.3. International security 31
1.4. Major scientific achievements 32
1.5. Main science and technology indicators relevant for space activities 33
1.5.1. Science and technology inputs 33
1.5.2. Science and technology outputs 34
2. Worldwide space policies and strategies 35
2.1. The United Nations system 36
2.1.1. United Nations General Assembly Committees 37
2.1.2. Other UN bodies and organs monitoring outer space activities 38
2.2. The Group on Earth Observations 39
2.3. Regional cooperation in space activities 40
2.4. Europe 41
2.4.1. European Space Agency 42
2.4.2. European Union 42
2.4.3. Other European institutions 46
2.4.4. Eumetsat 47
2.4.5. National governments 47
2.4.5.1. France 47
2.4.5.2. Germany 48
2.4.5.3. Italy 48
2.4.5.4. The United Kingdom 49
2.5. The United States 50
2.6. Russia 51
2.7. Japan 51
2.8. China 52
2.9. India 53
2.10. Emerging space powers 54
3. Worldwide space budgets and revenues 56
3.1. Overview of institutional space budgets 56
3.2. Overview of commercial space markets 58
3.3. Evolution of the space industry 60
3.3.1. Industrial evolution in Europe 61
3.3.2. Industrial evolution in the United States 62
3.3.3. Industrial evolution in Russia 63
3.3.4. Industrial evolution in Japan 64
3.3.5. Industrial evolution in China 64
3.4. Industrial overview 64
3.4.1. Launch sector 65
3.4.2. Satellite manufacturing sector 67
3.4.3. Satellite operators sector 69
4. The security dimension 70
4.1. The global space military context 71
4.2. The European space military context 72
4.3. The United States 75
4.4. Russia 76
4.5. Japan 77
4.6. China 77
4.7. India 78
4.8. Other space actors 78
4.9. Threats to the space environment 79
Developments in space policies, programmes and technologies throughout the world and in Europe. 87
1. Space policies and programmes 87
1.1. Highlights in activities and programmes 87
1.2. Highlights in partnerships 88
2. Space transportation 92
2.1. Europe 93
2.2. United States 94
2.3. Russia 95
2.4. Japan 96
2.5. China 96
2.6. India 97
2.7. Emerging actors 97
2.8. Industrial comparison 98
3. Space science and exploration 103
3.1. Human spaceflights activities 104
3.2. Lunar exploration 106
3.3. Mars exploration 108
3.4. Saturn exploration 110
3.5. Venus exploration 110
3.6. Mercury exploration 111
3.7. Jupiter observation 111
3.8. Solar observation 111
3.9. Outer solar system space probes 112
3.10. International cooperation in space exploration 113
4. Satellite applications 114
4.1. Space-based communications 114
4.2. Space-based positioning, navigation and timing systems 119
4.3. Space-based Earth observation 124
5. Technology developments 127
5.1. Propulsion 127
5.2. Information technology 129
5.3. Spacecraft operations and design 129
5.4. Other technologies 130
5.5. Suborbital activities 130
5.6. Innovation policy 132
PART 2 Views and Insights 139
1. Space in the Treaty of Lisbon 140
1.1. Introduction 140
1.2. Current constitutional bases for the EU in space 140
1.3. Antecedents and context of the Lisbon Treaty 143
1.4. Analysis of sapec-related provisions in the Lisbon Treaty 144
2. Galileo and the issue of public funding 149
2.1. Galileo finally on track 149
2.1.1. Galileo under EU governance 149
2.1.1.1. Timeline from June 2007 to July 2008 150
2.1.1.2. The calls for tender 150
2.1.2. The impact on future European policies 151
2.1.3. Meanwhile at the ranch: the in-orbit validation process 153
2.2. A bigger issue: when should taxpayers pay for space? 153
2.2.1. Space needs public money 153
2.2.1.1. The case of satellite navigation 154
2.2.2. Why should governments pay for space? – Defining the National Interest 155
2.2.2.1. Exhibit A: The UK 156
2.2.2.2. Exhibit B: The U.S. 156
2.2.3. Galileo and the national interest 157
2.2.3.1. Galileo for security 157
2.2.3.2. Galileo for innovation 159
2.2.3.3. Galileo for prestige 159
3. Europe.s approach to Space Situational Awareness: A proposal 162
3.1. Introduction 162
3.2. A European Space Situational Awareness programme 163
3.3. SSA end-users and their requirements 164
3.3.1. Institutional end-users 164
3.3.2. Military end-users 165
3.3.3. Commercial end-users 166
3.3.4. Scientific end-users 166
3.4. Some existing models in the space domain for developing a suitable data-policy and governance model 167
3.4.1. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) 167
3.4.2. Galileo 168
3.4.3. TerraSar-X 168
3.4.4. Graves 169
3.5. A possible European model for SSA 170
3.6. Conclusions 173
4. The European Union proposal for a Code of Conduct on Outer Space Activities 176
4.1. Good reasons to get active – Why the European Union drafts a Code of Conduct on Outer Space Activities 176
4.1.1. Treaty versus Code – The UN discussion process and the academic background 178
4.1.2. Process or outcome? – The European Union's objectives and its Member States' divergent interests 181
4.2. "A tightrope walk" – The European Union tackles the space between claim and reality 182
4.2.1. The contents of the EU draft CoC 183
4.2.1.1. General provisions 183
4.2.1.2. Co-operation mechanisms 183
4.3. A first appraisal of the CoC 184
5. International cooperation in space exploration: Lessons from the past and perspectives for the future 188
5.1. Introduction 188
5.2. The easy part: Robotic exploration 189
5.2.1. The fundamental importance of science as a driver of space exploration 189
5.2.2. The early steps in space cooperation 190
5.2.3. Basic space cooperation principles 191
5.3. Human spaceflight and its globalisation 192
5.3.1. Cold War competition in human spaceflight 192
5.3.2. The opening of the Space Shuttle programme to international cooperation 192
5.3.3. The de facto globalisation of human spaceflight 194
5.4. The special case of the International Space Station 195
5.4.1. The origin of the International Space Station programme 195
5.4.2. The original European human spaceflight strategy of the 1980s 195
5.4.3. A paradigm shift: Russia joins the International Space Station 196
5.4.4. The remarkable resilience of the International Space Station 198
5.4.5. The legal framework of the International Space Station as a model for the future 199
5.5. The Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) and the Global Exploration Strategy (GES) 200
5.5.1. The VSE: A major space policy decision 200
5.5.2. A very significant step: the establishment of the Global Exploration Strategy 202
5.5.3. From principles to requirements in the GES Framework 204
5.6. What model for the future? 206
5.6.1. The limits of the GES Framework exercise 206
5.6.2. The case for an integrated framework 208
5.6.3. Could the ITER model be applied to long-termhuman space exploration? 208
6. Exploration – How science finds its way in Europe 212
6.1. Introduction 212
6.2. What is exploration? 213
6.3. Consulting the scientific community 214
6.4. Main recommendations 215
6.5. The role of humans 217
6.6. The international dimension 218
6.7. The next steps 218
7. The political dimension of Europe's new human spaceflight capabilities 220
7.1. Introduction 220
7.2. Columbus and the ATV in historical perspective 220
7.3. Costs and benefits of spaceflight – a framework for analysis 224
7.4. Looking backward – Political costs and Europe's involvement in the Space Station programme 226
7.5. Options for reducing political costs 227
7.6. Potential benefits of ATV evolution 230
7.7. Conclusion 231
8. Space technologies and the export control system in the Unites States: Prospects for meaningful reform 234
8.1. Executive summary 234
8.2. Other types of export controls in the United States 236
8.3. Cold War thinking vs. 21st century reality 237
8.4. Living with ITAR 239
8.4.1. Brief history 239
8.4.2. The system today 240
8.5. ITAR and the space sector 242
8.5.1. The current system as applied to space technologies 242
8.5.2. Export control laws and U.S. government space policy 243
8.5.3. Evidence of the impact of ITAR on the space industry 244
8.6. Current effort for reforms 246
8.6.1. A new bill to reform the administration of the arms export control and for other purposes 246
8.6.2. Reform of ITAR and the space industrial sector 247
9. Space for resources 250
9.1. Introduction 250
9.2. 'Space for Development': a long-standing and long-term policy 250
9.2.1. The well entrenched benefits of space 250
9.2.2. Major changes in the utilisation of space for resources 252
9.3. "GMES and Africa": a new step in the European space for resources policy 254
9.3.1. The need to make the benefits of space technology more universal 254
9.3.2. The political significance of space for resources 255
9.4. Implications for the future 256
9.4.1. The geopolitical significance of space for resources 256
9.4.2. The implications of increasing competition 257
9.5. Conclusion 259
10. The United Nations and outer space: Celebrating 50 years of space achievements 261
10.1. Introduction 261
10.2. The establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 262
10.3. The UNISPACE Conferences and capacity building in space technology and applications 266
10.4. The use of space technology and applications in the United Nations system 269
10.5. The United Nations and space law: recent trends 270
10.6. Conclusions 273
PART 3 Facts and Figures 277
1. Chronology: July 2007-June 2008 278
1.1. Access to space 278
1.2. Space science and exploration 282
1.3. Applications 284
1.4. Policy and international cooperation 287
2. Country profiles 289
AUSTRIA 289
BELGIUM 289
CZECH REPUBLIC 290
DENMARK 290
FINLAND 291
FRANCE 291
GERMANY 292
GREECE 292
HUNGARY 293
IRELAND 293
ITALY 294
LUXEMBOURG 294
NETHERLANDS 295
NORWAY 295
POLAND 296
PORTUGAL 296
ROMANIA 297
SPAIN 297
SWEDEN 298
SWITZERLAND 298
UNITED KINGDOM 299
European Space Agency 300
European Commission 301
Eumetsat 302
CANADA 303
CHINA 304
INDIA 305
JAPAN 306
RUSSIA 307
UKRAINE 308
USA 309
3. Bibliography of space policy publications. July 2007-June 2008 311
3.1. Monographs 311
3.2. Articles 313
List of figures and tables 317
Figures 317
Part 1: The Year in Space 2007/2008 317
Part 2: Views and Insights 317
Tables 319
Part 1: The Year in Space 2007/2008 319
Part 2: Views and Insights 319
About the Authors 320
Index 328