Extensive Air Showers (eBook)

Volume I 2
Preface 8
Readme 9
Acknowledgements 11
Contents 14
Part I 30
Introduction, Facts and Phenomenology 31
1.1 Hadron Initiated Air Showers 31
1.2 Gamma Ray and Electron Initiated Air Showers 45
1.3 Neutrino Initiated Air Showers 52
1.4 Dust Grain Hypothesis 55
References 57
Shower Detection Methods and Basic Event Reconstruction 61
2.1 Introduction 61
2.2 Particle Detector Arrays 62
2.3 Air Cherenkov Detector Arrays 66
2.4 Air Fluorescence Detectors 67
2.5 Radio Emission Detection 69
2.6 RADAR Ranging and Detection 70
2.7 Acoustic Detection 74
2.8 Hybrid Detector Systems and Coupled Experiments 76
2.9 Directly and Indirectly Accessible Shower Parameters 79
2.10 Basic Shower Reconstruction Procedure 80
2.11 Detector Response to Air Shower Particles and Transition Effects 89
References 100
Hadronic Interactions and Cascades 105
3.1 Introduction 105
3.2 Hadronic Cross Sections 109
3.3 Interaction Mean Free Path 116
3.4 Projectile and Target Fragmentation 117
3.5 Secondary Particle Multiplicity 123
3.6 Kinematic Aspects of Secondaries, Longitudinal and Transverse Momenta 130
3.7 Large Transverse Momenta of Secondaries, Energy Dependence 132
3.8 Leading Particle Effect, Elasticity and Inelasticity 134
3.9 Correlations Between Interaction Observables 141
3.10 Models of High Energy Interactions: I. Early Models 143
3.11 Models of High Energy Interactions: II. Modern Models 155
3.12 Hadron Cascades 161
References 167
Electromagnetic Interactions and Photon– Electron Cascades 175
4.1 Introduction 175
4.2 Definition of Frequently Used Terms 178
4.3 Electromagnetic Interactions Relevant for Cascade and Shower Development 183
4.4 Miscellaneous EM-Interactions of Lesser or No Relevance for Cascades 190
4.5 Processes Under Extreme Conditions 196
4.6 Photon–Electron Cascade Theory 202
4.7 Expressions for Practical Applications 224
References 228
Muon and Neutrino Interactions 232
5.1 Introduction 232
5.2 Muons 233
5.3 Neutrinos 253
References 260
Longitudinal Development and Equal Intensity Distributions 264
6.1 Introduction 264
6.2 Physical Processes and Concepts 265
6.3 Attenuation of Shower Rate and Absorption of Shower Particles 274
6.4 Altitude and Zenith Angle Dependence 279
6.5 Environmental Effects 282
6.6 Data on Attenuation and Absorption, Altitude and Zenith Angle Dependence, Environmental Effects 285
6.7 Equal Intensity Distributions 311
References 324
Depth of Shower Maximum and Elongation Rate 330
7.1 Introduction 330
7.2 Methods of Xmax Determination 331
7.3 Air Cherenkov Signatures of Xmax 332
7.4 Particle Signatures of Xmax 353
7.5 Hybrid Signatures of Xmax 360
7.6 Air Fluorescence Tracking of Shower Development and Xmax 361
7.7 Atmospheric Effects 363
7.8 Elongation and Elongation Rate 365
7.9 Data Summary of Xmax, Its Fluctuations, s(Xmax), and the Elongation Rate 367
7.10 Mathematical Expressions and Fits 380
References 381
Lateral Structure of Showers and Energy Flow 386
8.1 Introduction 386
8.2 Shower Development and Particle Spread 387
8.3 Radial Dependence of Particle Composition and Particle Energy 390
8.4 Energy Release of Particles in the Atmosphere 393
8.5 Density Measurements and Detector Response, Zenith Angle Dependence 394
8.6 Lateral Distribution of Shower Particles 400
8.7 Azimuthal Asymmetries of Particle Distribution 407
8.8 Geomagnetic Effects 410
8.9 Lateral Distribution of Energy Flow 412
8.10 Array Specific Lateral Particle Distribution Functions 414
8.11 Effects of Shower Front Structure, Time Dispersion and Delayed Particles on Density Measurements 419
8.12 Lateral Distribution of Air Cherenkov Photons 419
8.13 Mathematical Expressions and Fits 420
References 422
Temporal Structure of Showers and Front Curvature 425
9.1 Introduction 425
9.2 Basic Definitions of Timing Observables 427
9.3 Early Work, Basic Results and Front Curvature 428
9.4 Recent ExperimentalWork and Simulations 434
9.5 Special Analysis Methods 438
9.6 Time Dispersion and Delayed Particle Effects on Density Measurements 439
References 443
Derived Shower and Interaction Parameters, Refined Event Reconstruction 445
10.1 Introduction 445
10.2 Primary Energy Estimation 448
10.3 Primary Mass Estimation 467
10.4 Shower Age 485
10.5 Additional and Hidden Parameters 496
References 501
Primary Cosmic Radiation and Astrophysical Aspects 504
11.1 Introduction 504
11.2 Nature of the Primary Radiation 505
11.3 Low Energy Primary Radiation 507
11.4 Gamma Radiation 516
11.5 Established and Predicted Neutrino Spectra 521
11.6 High Energy All-Particle Primary Spectrum 527
11.7 High Energy Primary Composition 553
11.8 Gamma Ray Initiated Showers 568
11.9 Arrival Direction and Anisotropy 576
11.10 Time Variation of Shower Intensity 587
11.11 Origin and Propagation 593
References 602
Index 614
Volume II 636
Preface 642
Readme 643
Acknowledgements 645
Contents 648
Part II 662
Common Shower Properties, Observables and Data 663
12.1 General Comments 663
12.2 Shower Size or Number Spectrum 664
12.3 Muon Size or Number Spectra 688
12.4 Shower Density Spectra 696
12.5 Density Spectra at Fixed Core Distance, Energy Loss Spectra of Showers 712
References 728
Hadrons 733
13.1 Introduction 733
13.2 Lateral Distribution and Structure Function 738
13.3 Energy Spectra and Related Data 749
13.4 Temporal Properties 757
13.5 Charge to Neutral Ratio 761
13.6 Hadron Content and Composition 765
13.7 Miscellaneous Topics 773
References 785
Muons 790
14.1 Introduction 790
14.2 Lateral Structure Functions and Density Distributions 792
14.3 Energy and Momentum Spectra 816
14.4 Temporal Properties and Muon Front Curvature 823
14.5 Charge Ratio and Geomagnetic Charge Separation 828
14.6 Height of Origin, Core Angle Distribution and (Eµ · rµ) Product 832
14.7 Multi-Muon Events and Muon Families 839
14.8 Muon Fluctuations 842
14.9 Genetics of Muons 843
References 847
Electrons and Photons 852
15.1 Introduction 852
15.2 Lateral Distribution Functions 855
15.3 Energy Spectra, Energy Flow and Related Data 871
15.4 Photon–Electron and Charge Ratio, Geomagnetic Effects 877
15.5 Temporal Properties 880
References 881
Atmospheric Cherenkov Radiation 884
16.1 Introduction 884
16.2 Phenomenology and Theory of Single Particle Cherenkov Radiation 886
16.3 Phenomenology and Theory of Cherenkov Radiation in Air Showers 891
16.4 Gamma Ray Initiated Showers and High Energy Gamma Ray Astronomy 906
16.5 Optical Background, Atmospheric Light Scattering, Absorption and Attenuation 911
16.6 Experimental Data and Interpretation 913
References 923
Atmospheric Fluorescence 928
17.1 Introduction 928
17.2 Fluorescence and Its Detection in E.A.S. 931
17.3 Optical Background, Atmospheric Scattering and Absorption 941
17.4 Shower Detection and Event Reconstruction 949
17.5 Measurements and Data 959
References 959
Radio Emission and Detection 962
18.1 Introduction 962
18.2 Radio Burst Generation Processes 963
18.3 Early Work 964
18.4 Theoretical Considerations and Theories of Radio Emission 966
18.5 Experimental Data and Phenomenology 977
18.6 RecentWork 985
18.7 Concluding Comments and Outlook 992
References 994
Correlations and Miscellaneous Topics 998
19.1 Introduction 998
19.2 Electron-Muon Correlations 999
19.3 Electron-Hadron and Muon-Hadron Correlations 1006
19.4 Miscellaneous Correlations 1015
19.5 Miscellaneous Topics 1024
References 1033
Air Shower Simulations 1037
20.1 Introduction 1037
20.2 Monte Carlo Methods 1039
20.3 Energy Splitting, Thinning and Hybrid Methods 1052
References 1054
Definitions and Relations 1056
21.1 General Comments 1056
21.2 Definitions of Terms and Quantities 1057
References 1080
Experimental Installations 1082
A.1 EAS Arrays and Cosmic Ray Ground Facilities 1082
A.2 Cosmic Ray Underground Installations of Past and Present 1111
References 1114
Miscellaneous Relations, Tables, Lists and Constants 1117
B.1 Electromagnetic Interaction Related Constants and Parameters 1117
B.2 Bethe-Bloch Ionization Loss Formula 1118
B.3 The Atmosphere 1119
B.4 Chapman Function 1127
B.5 Gross Transformation 1129
B.6 Energy, Particle, Photon and Magnetic Field Densities in Space 1129
B.7 Data on Cherenkov Radiation 1130
References 1131
List of Symbols 1133
Abbreviations and Acronyms 1136
List of Cosmic Ray Conferences 1138
Index 1139