Remote Sensing Tools for Exploration (eBook)

Pamela Clark grew up in New England and, inspired by President John Kennedy, decided she wanted to explore outer space by the time she was thirteen years old. She obtained her BA from St. Joseph College. While obtaining her PhD in planetary geochemistry from the University of Maryland, she worked at GSFC/NASA outside of Washington DC and the Astrogeology Branch of the USGS in Flagstaff, Arizona, simulating, analyzing, correlating, and interpreting lunar X-ray spectra. She eventually returned Goddard as a member of the XGRS team on the NEAR mission to asteroid Eros. Currently, as a member of the sciences and exploration division at GSFC, Dr. Clark is the science lead in a group to develop new paradigms for the design of space missions and vehicles. Michael Lee Rilee, Ph.D. is the founder of Rilee Systems Technologies LLC which focuses on advanced computing technologies for autonomous aerospace and robotics applications. Rilee is a plasma physicist and astronomer by training with experience in high performance computing as applied to ground and space-based systems. He was a key researcher in NASA Goddard Space Flight Center's parallel and distributed robotics efforts, including Tetrahedral Robotics.

Preface 6
Remote Sensing from a New Perspective 6
About the Authors 8
Pamela Elizabeth Clark 8
Michael Lee Rilee 9
Contents 10
Chapter 1 14
An Overview 14
1.1 What is Remote Sensing? 14
1.2 The Roots of Remote Sensing 16
1.4 Systems Approach to Remote Sensing 27
1.5 Remote Sensing System Development 28
1.7 Summary 39
1.8 Some Questions for Discussion 40
References 41
Chapter 2 42
Principles of Remote Sensing 42
2.1 Beyond Human Sensors and Controlled Environments 42
2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 43
2.4 Optics 49
2.5 Radiation Measurement 52
2.6 Interactions as a Function of State 53
2.7 Atmospheric Effects 53
2.8 Surface Interactions 55
2.9 The Major Spectral Regions 57
2.10 Interpretation of Remote Sensing Data 63
2.11 Summary 64
2.12 Some Questions for Discussion 65
References 65
Chapter 3 66
Visible and Circumvisible Regions and Image Interpretation 66
3.1 Significance of the Visible Spectrum 66
3.2 The Source of Visible Light 66
3.3 Production: Scattering at Surfaces 67
3.4 Production: Electronic Absorption Features 69
3.5 Production: Vibrational Absorption Features 72
3.6 Albedo and Reflectivity 74
3.7 Radiance, Reflectance, and Emittance 75
3.8 Spectral Reflectance from Planetary Regoliths 76
3.9 Color Theory 79
3.10 Tonal Variations and Detectability 82
3.11 Resolution and Resolving Power 84
3.12 Photogrammetry 85
3.13 Stereogrammetry 88
3.14 Spectrometry 91
3.15 Circumvisible Image Interpretation 92
3.16 Characteristic Spectral Signatures 97
3.17 Characteristic Structural and Morphological Signatures 100
3.18 Spectral Reflectance Band Images 107
3.19 Space Weathering, Maturity, and Composition Effects 108
3.20 Detection: The First Capture of Visible Light 109
3.21 Detection: History of Circumvisible Region Remote Sensing 112
3.22 Detection: Current Imaging System Characteristics 116
3.23 Detection: Non-Imaging Systems 120
3.24 Detection: In Situ 121
3.25 Summary 122
3.26 Some Questions for Discussion 123
References 124
Chapter 4 127
Ray Region: X–rays, Alpha Particles, Gamma– rays, Neutrons, UV 127
4.1 Significance of the High Energy Spectrum 127
4.2 Historical View of Elemental Abundance Mapping 127
4.3 Ray Region Energetic Interaction at Planetary Surfaces 130
4.4 Natural Radioactive Decay 131
4.5 Alpha, Beta, Gamma and High Energy Particle Sources 132
4.6 Production of Secondary Gamma–rays 133
4.7 Production of Neutrons 137
4.8 X–ray Sources 139
4.9 Production of Secondary X–rays 141
4.10 In Situ Particle Induced Energy Production and Analysis 145
4.11 Ionizing Ultraviolet 147
4.12 Analysis and Interpretation of Gamma–ray Spectra 149
4.13 Analysis and Interpretation of Neutron Flux 154
4.14 Analysis and Interpretation of X–ray Spectra 159
4.15 In Situ Surface and Subsurface Techniques 163
4.16 Planetology and the Ray Region 170
4.17 Ray Region Data Products and Interpretation 171
4.18 Detection of Gamma–rays and Neutrons 173
4.19 Detection of X–rays 177
4.20 Radiation Damage 181
4.21 Summary 182
4.22 Some Questions for Discussion 184
References 185
Chapter 5 191
Longwave Region: Mid to Thermal Infrared, Microwave, and Radio 191
5.1 Significance of the Longwave Region 191
5.2 Energy Production in the Mid to Far Infrared 192
5.3 Mid to Far Infrared Diagnostic Features 192
5.4 Mid to Far Infrared Data Analysis 196
5.5 Mid to Far Infrared Planetary Signatures 196
5.6 Transition into Thermal Infrared 197
5.7 Heat, Temperature, and Flux 198
5.8 Thermal Energy Production and Parameters 199
5.9 Thermal Infrared Data Analysis 203
5.10 Thermal Infrared Signatures 205
5.11 Infrared Sensors 207
5.12 Passive Microwave 210
5.13 Microwaves From Surfaces 210
5.14 Microwaves From Atmospheres 212
5.15 Microwaves From Liquid Surfaces 219
5.16 Passive Microwave Measurements 220
5.17 Microwave Detection 221
5.18 Microwaves Sensors 223
5.19 The Nature of Radar Interactions 224
5.20 Radar Backscatter Models 227
5.21 Dielectric Properties, Absorption, and Volume Scattering 229
5.22 Radar Roughness 231
5.23 Radar Polarization 232
5.24 Radar Geological Applications 234
5.25 Radar Oceanographic Applications 236
5.26 Radar Atmospheric Applications 239
5.27 Real Aperture Radar Viewing and Resolution Parameters 239
5.28 The Radar System 241
5.29 Radar Detection 242
5.30 Radar Signal Properties and Processing 244
5.31 Synthetic Aperture Radar 246
5.32 Planetary Radar Observations 251
5.33 Radar Sensor Systems 254
5.34 Summary 258
5.34 Some Questions for Discussion 260
References 261
Chapter 6 266
Processing Information and Data 266
6.1 The Nature of Remote Sensing Data Processing 266
6.2 Mission Planning: Roadmaps to Requirements 267
6.3 Mission Planning: Concept to Implementation 270
6.4 Flight Support for the Mission Life Cycle 274
6.5 Flight Support: Communication, Command, and Data Handling 276
6.6 Flight Support: Use of Signal Processing 281
6.7 Signal Processing: The Relationship between Signal and Noise 284
6.8 Signal Processing: Noise Sources and Types 286
6.9 Signal Processing: Types of Error 290
6.10 Signal Processing: Noise Removal Strategies 291
6.11 Data Reduction: Assessment Steps 295
6.12 Data Reduction: Calibration Steps 297
6.13 Analysis: Statistics of Individual Datasets 298
6.14 Analysis: Image Generation and Enhancement 303
6.15 Analysis: Image Mathematical Operations 304
6.16 Analysis: Stretching 304
6.17 Analysis: Density Slicing and Trend Surface Analysis 305
6.18 Analysis: Filtering 306
6.19 Analysis: The Relationship Between Spatial and Frequency Domains 307
6.20 Interpretation: Multivariate Classification and Correlation 310
6.21 Interpretation: Modeling 313
6.22 Interpretation: Pattern Recognition and Learning Models 313
6.23 Dealing with Geometry: Footprint Determination 317
6.24 Dealing with Geometry: Geographic Projection 318
6.25 Dealing with Geometry: Rectification and Registration 318
6.26 Data Management: Planning 320
6.27 Data Management: Processing 321
6.28 New Tools 325
6.29 Summary 327
6.30 Some Questions for Discussions 330
References 331
Afterword 336
Data Fusion 336
Index 342