Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment (eBook)

Preface 5
Contents 7
An Overview of the Solar– Terrestrial Environment 15
1.1 Introduction 16
1.2 Overview and History of Solar-Terrestrial Environment Research 16
1.3 Nature of the Solar- Terrestrial Environment 28
1.4 Applications 33
1.5 Concluding Remarks 35
References 36
Part 1 The Sun 38
The Solar Interior – Radial Structure, Rotation, Solar Activity Cycle 39
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Radial Structure 40
2.3 Helioseismology 45
2.4 Solar Activity Cycle 50
2.5 Dynamo Theory 53
2.6 Models of the Solar Cycle 57
2.7 Differential Rotation 60
2.8 Conclusions 64
References 65
Solar Atmosphere 67
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 The Role of the Magnetic Field 74
3.3 Prominences 82
3.4 Solar Flares 83
3.5 Coronal Heating 88
3.6 Conclusion 102
References 103
Solar Wind 106
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 The Corona 107
4.3 Outward Decline of Density and Pressure 108
4.4 Comets and Solar Corpuscular Radiation 109
4.5 Cosmic Ray Variations 109
4.6 Plasma in Interplanetary Space 110
4.7 The State of the Corona 111
4.8 Theoretical Foundations of Hydrodynamics and Magnetohydrodynamics 112
4.9 Kinetic Conditions in the Corona 114
4.10 Magnetohydrodynamics 115
4.11 Hydrodynamic Expansion of the Solar Corona 116
4.12 Sufficient Conditions on Coronal Temperature 118
4.13 Analogy with Expansion Through a Laval Nozzle 119
4.14 Gravitational Throttling of Coronal Expansion 120
4.15 Wind Density and SolarMass Loss 121
4.16 Magnetic Fields and Streams in the SolarWind 123
4.17 Discussion 124
References 125
Coronal Mass Ejection 128
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 CMEs at the Sun 130
5.3 Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections 139
5.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects 141
References 142
Solar Radio Emissions 144
6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 RadioWave Propagation 146
6.3 Thermal Radiation from the Sun 148
6.4 Solar Radio Bursts 149
6.5 In SituWave and Particle Measurements 155
6.6 Radio Signatures of Coronal and Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections 156
6.7 Conclusions: The Relevance of Radio Observations to the Understanding of the Solar- Terrestrial Environment 159
References 161
Part 2 The Earth 163
Magnetosphere 164
7.1 Introduction 165
7.2 Magnetic Configuration 166
7.3 Magnetospheric Electric Fields 173
7.4 Magnetospheric Charged Particles 182
7.5 Summary 195
References 196
Ionosphere 198
8.1 Production and Structure 199
8.2 Dynamics and Couplings 209
8.3 Observations and Modeling 223
8.4 Conclusion 226
References 228
Thermosphere 230
9.1 Outline of the Thermosphere 231
9.2 Basic Thermosphere Dynamics 233
9.3 GCM Simulation 243
9.4 Observation 245
9.5 Dynamics of the Polar Thermosphere 248
9.6 Concluding Remarks 251
References 251
Part 3 Space Plasmas 255
Space Plasmas 256
10.1 Characteristic Properties of Plasmas 257
10.2 Particles in Space Plasmas 259
10.3 Mathematical Equations for Plasmas 264
10.4 Plasma as an MHD Fluid 266
10.5 Waves in Space Plasmas 271
10.6 Equilibria and Their Stability 280
10.7 Conclusion 284
References 284
Magnetic Reconnection 286
11.1 Introduction 287
11.2 Reconnection on the Magnetopause 288
11.3 Reconnection Inside the Magnetotail 299
References 315
Nonlinear Processes in Space Plasmas 318
12.1 Introduction 319
12.2 Stimulated Scattering of ElectromagneticWaves 319
12.3 Resonant Three-Wave Interactions in Plasmas 323
12.4 Parametric Instabilities ofMagnetic Field- Aligned AlfvénWaves 325
12.5 Kinetic AlfvénWaves Driven Zonal Flows 327
12.6 Ponderomotive Forces and Plasma Density Modifications 329
12.7 Modulated Circularly Polarized Dispersive AlfvénWaves 330
12.8 Electron Joule Heating 331
12.9 Self-Interaction Between DSAWs 332
12.10 Nonlinear Drift-Alfvén–Shukla–Varma Modes 332
12.11 Summary and Conclusions 334
References 335
Part 4 Processes in the Solar-Terrestrial Environment 337
The Aurora 338
13.1 Introduction 339
13.2 Geographical Distributions 339
13.3 Spectrum, Optical Intensity and Power 342
13.4 Auroral Forms and Structuring 344
13.5 Auroral Substorms and Storms 347
13.6 Auroral Electrodynamics and Energetic Particle Precipitation 349
13.7 Correlations of Aurora with Various Solar and Geophysical Phenomena 353
13.8 Aurora as a Source of Plasma 354
13.9 The Aurora as a Universal Phenomenon 356
13.10 Concluding Remarks 357
References 357
Geomagnetic Storms 360
14.1 Introduction 361
14.2 What is a Geomagnetic Storm? 361
14.3 Ring Current as a Dominant Signature of Geomagnetic Storms 363
14.4 SolarWind Causes of Geomagnetic Storms 364
14.5 Magnetospheric Geometry During Geomagnetic Storms 367
14.6 Storm- Time Magnetic Fields and Electric Fields in the Magnetosphere 368
14.7 Discussion on Open Issues of Geomagnetic Storm Dynamics 372
14.8 Summary 377
References 378
Substorms 380
15.1 Observations 381
15.2 Physical Frameworks for Understanding Substorms 391
15.3 Final Comments 396
References 398
Ultra Low Frequency Waves in the Magnetosphere 401
16.1 Introduction 402
16.2 Linear Theory of HydromagneticWaves 404
16.3 Sources of Geomagnetic Pulsations 406
16.4 Effects of the Ionosphere and Field Line Eigenperiods 408
16.5 Field Line Resonance 409
16.6 Cavity Resonance 411
16.7 Low Frequency Pulsations 411
16.8 Mid-Frequency Pulsations 413
16.9 FLR and Magnetospheric Diagnostics 416
16.10 Cavity/Waveguide Modes 418
16.11 High Frequency Pulsations 419
16.12 Irregular Pulsations 421
16.13 Concluding Remarks 423
References 423
Space Weather 427
17.1 Introduction 428
17.2 Early Technologies: Telegraph and Wireless 429
17.3 Growth in Electrical Technologies 431
17.4 The Space Age and SpaceWeather 433
17.5 Policy Issues 442
17.6 Summary References 443
Effects of the Solar Cycle on the Earth’s Atmosphere 448
18.1 Introduction 449
18.2 Data and Methods 449
18.3 Variability in the Stratosphere 450
18.4 Influences of the 11-Year Sunspot Cycle on the Stratosphere 451
18.5 The Solar Signal in the Troposphere 461
18.6 The QBO–Solar–Relationship Throughout the Year 462
18.7 Models and Mechanisms 464
18.8 Summary 466
References 467
Part 5 Planets and Comets in the Solar System 470
Planetary Magnetospheres 471
19.1 Introduction 472
19.2 Parameters that ControlMagnetospheric Configuration and Dynamics 472
19.3 A Tour of Planetary Magnetospheres 476
19.4 Summary: some Lessons for Earth 493
References 494
The Solar- Comet Interactions 495
20.1 Introduction 496
20.2 Cometary Reservoirs 496
20.3 The Nature of the Cometary Nucleus 498
20.4 Interaction with Solar Radiation 500
20.5 The Interaction with the SolarWind 503
20.6 Comets as Probes of the SolarWind 509
References 516
About the Authors 518
Index 529