Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Fluxes and Processes (eBook)

Foreword 5
Contents 7
Editorial Committee 20
External Reviewers 21
List of contributors 22
Glossary 28
Résumé-Synthèse 29
Les gaz à effet de serre dans les milieux naturels 30
La problématique des gaz à effet de serre dans les réservoirs hydroélectriques 35
1 Introduction 48
1.1 Greenhouse Gases and Reservoirs 48
1.2 Reservoir Dynamics 54
1.3 Contents and Rationales 59
Gross Emissions 62
2 Analytical Techniques for Measuring Fluxes of CO2 and CH4 from Hydroelectric Reservoirs and Natural Water Bodies 63
Abstract 63
2.1 Introduction 64
2.2 History of the Methods Used by Hydro-Québec 64
2.3 Description of the Methods 65
2.4 Comparison of the Different Methods 73
2.5 Conclusion 86
3 Development and Use of an Experimental near Infrared Open Path Diode Laser Prototype for Continuous Measurement of CO2 and CH4 Fluxes from Boreal Hydro Reservoirs and Lakes 87
Abstract 87
3.1 Introduction 88
3.2 Methodology 89
3.3 Experimental Set-Up and Technique 92
3.4 Major Results and Discussion 97
3.5 Conclusion and Directions for Future Work 110
4 Greenhouse Gas Fluxes ( CO2, CH4 and N2O) in Forests and Wetlands of Boreal, Temperate and Tropical Regions 112
Abstract 112
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Net Ecosystem Exchange of CO2 ( NEE) in Forests 114
4.3 Net Ecosystem Exchange of CO2 in Wetlands 122
4.4 CH4 Fluxes in Wetlands 126
4.5 CH4 Fluxes in Forests 138
4.6 N2O Fluxes in Forest and Wetland Soils 141
4.7 N2O in Wetlands 145
4.8 GHG Budgets in Forests and Wetlands 145
4.9 General Evaluation of Gas Flux Data 150
5 Diffuse Flux of Greenhouse Gases – Methane and Carbon Dioxide – at the Sediment- Water Interface of Some Lakes and Reservoirs of the World 153
Abstract 153
5.1 Introduction 154
5.2 Lakes and Reservoirs Sampled in this Study 157
5.3 Results and Discussion 166
5.4 Conclusions 176
Acknowledgements 176
6 Organic Carbon Densities of Soils and Vegetation of Tropical, Temperate and Boreal Forests 178
Abstract 178
6.1 Introduction 179
6.2 Soil Organic Carbon Density 180
6.3 Physical and Biological Factors Affecting SOC Density 188
6.4 Uncertainties of SOC Estimates 192
6.5 Organic Carbon in Vegetation 193
6.6 High Spatial Heterogeneity of Biomass 196
6.7 Uncertainties in Evaluating the Organic Carbon in Vegetation 201
6.8 Total Carbon Densities and Stocks of Forest Biomes 204
6.9 Export of Organic Carbon to Aquatic Ecosystems 206
6.10 Conclusion 208
7 Carbon Dioxide and Methane Emissions from Estuaries 209
Abstract 209
7.1 Introduction 210
7.2 Estuaries: Some Useful Definitions for Describing Carbon Cycling and Gas Emissions 210
7.3 Organic Carbon Sources and Mineralization in Estuaries 212
7.4 Estuarine Specificity for Gas Transfer 213
7.5 Carbon Dioxide Emissions 216
7.6 Methane Emissions 222
7.7 Significance at the Global Scale 228
Acknowledgments 229
8 GHG Emissions from Boreal Reservoirs and Natural Aquatic Ecosystems 230
Abstract 230
8.1 Introduction 230
8.2 Material and Methods 231
8.3 Results and Discussion 239
8.4 Conclusion 252
9 CO2 Emissions from Semi- Arid Reservoirs and Natural Aquatic Ecosystems 254
Abstract 254
9.1 Introduction 254
9.2 Material and Methods 255
9.3 Results and Discussion 264
9.4 Conclusion 271
10 A Comparison of Carbon Dioxide Net Production in Three Flooded Uplands ( FLUDEX, 1999- 2002) and a Flooded Wetland ( ELARP, 1991- 2002) Using a Dynamic Model 272
Abstract 272
10.1 Introduction 272
10.2 Methods 274
10.3 Results 278
10.4 Discussion 282
10.5 Conclusions 286
11 Gross Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Brazilian Hydro Reservoirs 287
Abstract 287
11.1 Introduction 287
11.2 Material and Methods 288
11.3 Methodology 289
11.4 Results and Discussion: Gross Emissions of CO2 and CH4 from Brazilian Power Dams 291
11.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Orientations 299
11.6 Annex 301
Acknowledgements 311
12 Long Term Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Hydroelectric Reservoir of Petit Saut ( French Guiana) and Potential Impacts 312
Abstract 312
12.1 Introduction 312
12.2 Experimental Site and Campaigns 314
12.3 Results 316
12.4 Conclusion and Perspective 328
Acknowledgments 331
Processes Leading to GHG Production 332
13 Production of GHG from the Decomposition of in vitro Inundated Phytomass and Soil 333
Abstract 333
13.1 Introduction 334
13.2 Methodology 336
13.3 Results and Discussion 342
13.4 Conclusion 354
Acknowledgements 356
14 Diffusive CO2 Flux at the Air-Water Interface of the Robert-Bourassa Hydroelectric Reservoir in Northern Québec : Isotopic Approach (13C) 357
Abstract 357
14.1 Introduction 357
14.2 Materials and Methods 359
14.3 Model Construction 363
14.4 Estimation of the FCO2 prod./FCO2 atm. eq. for the Robert- Bourassa Reservoir 364
14.5 Estimating FCO2 atm. eq and Mean CO2 Flux at the Air-Water Interface 366
14.6 Estimate of the Mean Annual Diffusive CO2 Flux from the Robert- Bourassa Reservoir 370
14.7 Comments and Conclusions 371
15 The Use of Carbon Mass Budgets and Stable Carbon Isotopes to Examine Processes Affecting CO2 and CH4 Production in the Experimental FLUDEX Reservoirs 373
Abstract 373
15.1 Introduction 374
15.2 Methods and Rationale 375
15.3 Results and Discussion 385
15.4 Conclusions 400
16 Mass Balance of Organic Carbon in the Soils of Forested Watersheds from Northeastern North America 401
Abstract 401
16.1 Introduction 401
16.2 Organic Carbon in Forest Soils 404
16.3 Organic C Pools and Fluxes in Forest Watersheds 423
16.4 Implications for the Emission of Greenhouse Gases 435
17 Planktonic Community Dynamics over Time in a Large Reservoir and their Influence on Carbon Budgets 439
Abstract 439
17.1 Introduction 439
17.2 Materials and Methods 441
17.3 Results 446
17.4 Discussion 454
17.5 Conclusions 458
18 Production and Consumption of Methane in Soil, Peat, and Sediments from a Hydro- Electric Reservoir ( Robert- Bourassa) and Lakes in the Canadian Taiga 459
Abstract 459
18.1 Introduction 460
18.2 Material and Methods 461
18.3 Results 466
18.4 Discussion 475
18.5 Methane Biogeochemistry and Concluding Remarks 481
Acknowledgments 483
19 Bacterial Activity in the Water Column and its Impact on the CO2 Efflux 484
Abstract 484
19.1 Introduction 485
19.2 Study Sites and Methods 486
19.3 Results 488
19.4 Discussion 492
19.5 Conclusion 499
20 Production-Consumption of CO2 in Reservoirs and Lakes in Relation to Plankton Metabolism 500
Abstract 500
20.1 Introduction 501
20.2 Study Site 502
20.3 Methods 504
20.4 Results and Discussion 507
21 Impacts of Ultraviolet Radiation on Aquatic Ecosystems: Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Implications for Hydroelectric Reservoirs 525
Abstract 525
21.1 Introduction 526
21.2 Ultraviolet Radiation and Dissolved Organic Matter 526
21.3 Ultraviolet Radiation and Microorganisms 535
21.4 Photooxidation in Reservoirs 538
21.5 Conclusion 542
22 Impact of Methane Oxidation in Tropical Reservoirs on Greenhouse Gases Fluxes and Water Quality 544
Abstract 544
22.1 Introduction 544
22.2 Site and Measurement Descriptions 546
22.3 Water Quality and Methane Oxidation in the Reservoir 549
22.4 Methane Emission and Oxidation Downstream of the Reservoir 559
22.5 General Conclusion 573
Acknowledgements 575
Modelling 576
23 Using Gas Exchange Estimates to Determine Net Production of CO2 in Reservoirs and Lakes 577
Abstract 577
23.1 Introduction 577
23.2 Methods Used to Estimate Gas Exchange 578
23.3 Discussion of the Methods 580
23.4 Using a Model to Assist Interpretation 582
23.5 Other Sources of Variability 585
23.6 Conclusion 588
24 A One-Dimensional Model for Simulating the Vertical Transport of Dissolved CO2 and CH4 in Hydroelectric Reservoirs 589
Abstract 589
24.1 Introduction 589
24.2 Thermodynamic Lake Models 591
24.3 Description of the Hostetler Lake Model 592
24.4 Calculation of CO2 and CH4 Fluxes at the Air- Water Interface 598
24.5 Results 601
24.6 Conclusion 607
25 Modelling the GHG emission from hydroelectric reservoirs 610
Abstract 610
25.1 Introduction 611
25.2 Model formulation 614
25.3 Mass transfer of CO2 and CH4 at the water- air interface 618
25.4 Results and discussion 631
25.5 Conclusion 646
Acknowledgements 648
26 Synthesis 649
Abstract 649
26.1 Greenhouse Gases in Natural Environments 650
26.2 The Issue of Greenhouse Gases in Hydroelectric Reservoirs 656
References 672