Effects of Air Pollution on Cultural Heritage (eBook)

Preface 5
Acknowledgements 9
Contents 11
Contributors 12
Environment, Pollution and Effects 14
1.1 Overview 14
1.2 Damage to Cultural Heritage Materials 15
1.2.1 Physical Damage 16
1.2.2 Chemical and Biological Damage 16
1.2.3 Soiling 17
1.3 Environmental Factors 17
1.3.1 Radiation 17
1.3.2 Temperature 17
1.3.3 Water 18
1.3.4 Air and Air Pollutants 18
1.3.5 Wind 19
1.3.6 Meteorological and Climatological Factors 19
1.3.7 Synergy of Weather Factors 20
1.4 Pollutant Characteristics 23
1.4.1 Natural or Anthropogenic 23
1.4.2 Primary or Secondary 23
1.4.3 Gaseous or Particulate 23
1.5 Emission Inventories 23
1.6 The Main Air Pollutants 24
1.6.1 Sulphur Dioxide 25
1.6.2 Nitrogen Oxides and Nitric Acid 27
1.6.3 Particulate Matter 30
1.6.4 Ground-Level Ozone 35
1.7 Trends and Scenarios 37
References 39
Sources of Additional Information 40
Monitoring, Modelling and Mapping 41
2.1 Overview 41
2.2 Monitoring 42
2.2.1 Monitoring Networks for Ambient Air 43
2.2.2 Deposition Monitoring 48
2.3 Modelling 51
2.4 Case Study – Model Calculations to Estimate Urban Levels of Particulate Matter in Oslo. Methodology and Model Evaluation 53
2.5 Mapping 56
2.6 Case Study – Current Levels of Ambient Pollution at a National ( UK) Scale 56
2.7 Case Study – Current Levels of Ambient Pollution at an Urban ( London) Scale 59
2.8 Case Study – Current Depositing Pollutants at a National ( UK) Scale 62
References 62
Sources of additional information 63
Corrosion 64
3.1 Overview 64
3.2 Corrosion Processes 65
3.2.1 General Description of Degradation of Materials Due to Atmospheric Corrosion 67
3.2.2 The Effect of SO2 in Combination with NO2/O3 and Temperature/ Relative Humidity and Other Synergistic Effects 68
3.2.3 The Effect of HNO3 in Combination with Temperature/ Relative Humidity 69
3.2.4 The Effect of Precipitation and Acid Rain 70
3.2.5 The Effect of Particulate Matter Including NaCl in Combination with Temperature/ Relative Humidity 71
3.3 Observed Levels of Corrosion 72
3.4 Overview of Major Exposure Programs 72
3.4.1 UNECE ICP Materials Programme 73
3.4.2 International Standards 76
3.4.3 Typical Corrosion Rates for Different Materials 78
3.4.4 Long-Term Trends in the 20th Century 81
3.4.5 Recent Trends 83
3.5 Dynamic Effects (Memory Effects) 85
3.6 Dose-Response Functions for Corrosion 86
3.6.1 Discussion of Terms 86
3.6.2 Early Dose-Response Functions 87
3.6.3 Dose-Response Functions for the SO2- Dominating Situation 87
3.6.4 Dose-Response Functions for the Multi-pollutant Situation 90
3.7 Case Study: Corrosion Effects in Warm Regions of Asia and Africa 92
3.7.1 Overview of Results of Major Programmes in Tropical and Subtropical Climates 92
3.7.2 RAPIDC Corrosion Programme 93
3.7.3 Environmental and Corrosion Data 95
3.7.4 Comparison of Corrosion in Warm and Temperate Regions 95
3.8 Concluding Remarks 98
3.9 Case Study: Corrosion of Bronze Statues in the United States 98
3.9.1 Summary 98
3.9.2 Background: Corrosion of Copper and Bronze 99
3.9.3 Hiker Study – In Situ Measurement of Long-Term Monumental Bronze Corrosion 100
3.9.4 Predictive Power of Bronze Dose-Response Functions 107
References 112
Sources of Additional Information 113
Soiling 115
4.1 Overview 115
4.2 Introduction 116
4.3 Levels and Trends 118
4.3.1 Temporal Trends and Variations 118
4.3.2 Spatial Trends and Variations 122
4.4 Mechanisms and Models 122
4.5 Variability in the Particle Assemblage 127
4.6 Dose-Response Functions for Soiling 130
4.6.1 Loss in Reflectance and Soiling Constant k 131
4.6.2 k vs. PM10 and the Dose- Response Constant l 131
4.7 Dose-Response Functions 132
4.7.1 The Use of the Dose-Response Functions 132
References 134
Sources of Additional Information 136
Some Aspects of Biological Weathering and Air Pollution 137
5.1 Overview 137
5.2 Introduction 138
5.3 Previous Work and Questions Posed 139
5.4 Materials and Environment – Air Pollution and Microbes 140
5.5 Types of Organisms and Their Deteriorative Potential 142
5.5.1 Macroscopically Visible Organisms 144
5.5.2 Microorganisms in General 144
5.5.3 Phototrophic Microorganisms 145
5.5.4 Chemolithotrophic Microorganisms 147
5.5.5 Iron and Manganese Oxidizing Microorganisms 148
5.5.6 Chemoorganothrophic Microorganisms 149
5.6 Interactions of Air Pollution and Biological Weathering 150
5.7 Cost and Benefit of Biological Growth 152
5.8 Gaps of Knowledge and Future Work 152
References 153
Sources of Additional Information 155
Stock at Risk 156
6.1 Overview 156
6.2 Stock at Risk at Different Scales 157
6.2.1 Continental or Regional 158
6.2.2 National 159
6.2.3 City Scale 164
6.2.4 District Level 166
6.2.5 Individual Buildings 167
6.2.6 Deciding What Information Is Needed for Mapping Stock at risk 171
6.2.7 Indicators 174
6.3 Case Study – Evaluation by a Direct Measurement Method of the Stock of Materials at Air Pollution Risk on the Facades in Three Cities Inscribed on the UNESCO List: Paris, Venice and Rome 180
6.3.1 The Stock of Materials at Risk on the Facades in the Centre of Paris 180
6.3.2 The Stock of Materials at Risk on the Facades in the Sestiere of Dorsoduro in Venice 187
6.3.3 The Stock of Materials at Risk on the Facades in the Via del Babuino in Rome 191
6.3.4 Conclusions from Case Study 195
References 195
Sources of Additional Information 196
Economic Evaluation 197
7.1 Overview 197
7.2 A Consideration of the Use of Cost-Benefit Analysis in Relation to Cultural Heritage 199
7.3 Calculation of Direct Cost for Maintenance and Repair 201
7.3.1 Assumptions 203
7.3.2 Model for Calculating Costs due to Air Pollution 204
7.3.3 Estimation of Air Pollutant Dose–Exposure Cost for Selected Stock at Risk of Cultural Heritage 205
7.4 Methods for Valuing Welfare Loss of Damages to Cultural Heritage ( Indirect Costs) 206
7.4.1 Methods for Valuing Cultural Heritage Interventions 209
7.5 Application of CVM to Cultural Heritage Goods 211
7.6 The Effects on the Local Economy 213
7.6.1 The Multiplier Effect 214
7.6.2 Leakage 214
7.6.3 Economic Impact of Tourism 215
7.6.4 The Employment Impacts of Cultural Heritage Restoration 216
7.7 Case Study: Cost Benefit Analysis of Damage to Heritage Materials in Europe by Air Pollution 216
7.7.1 Methodology for Corrosion Effects 216
7.7.2 Methodology for Soiling Effects of Particles 217
7.7.3 Costs and Benefits in Europe 218
7.8 Development of Datasheets for the Extended CBA 219
7.9 Summary 221
References 221
Sources of Additional Information 222
Risk Assessment and Management Strategies at Local Level 223
8.1 Overview 223
8.2 Monitoring at Local Level 225
8.2.1 Parameter Monitoring 226
8.2.2 Dosimetry 227
8.3 In Situ Evaluation of Effects – Toolkit for Damage Assessment 228
8.4 Mapping and Modelling Pollution and Risk of Corrosion and Soiling 230
8.4.1 Case Study – Model Calculations and Scenario Modelling of Urban Levels of Particulate Matter and Risk of Soiling of Buildings in Oslo 230
8.5 Case Study - Air Movements Around Complex Structures, Including Cultural Heritage 235
8.5.1 Wind Tunnel Tests 238
8.5.2 Modelling of Air Flow Around Towers 239
8.6 Practical Life Cycle or Life Time Estimates as a Base for Management Strategies 244
8.7 Cost/Benefit Analyses for Selected Built Heritage Types 250
8.7.1 Case Studies of Typical Elements of Built Heritage From the Cost/ Benefit Point of View Taking Into Account Pollution Situations 251
8.8 Damage Caused by Air Pollution to Indoor Cultural Heritage Materials 255
8.8.1 Modelling of Indoor Air Quality and Pollutants Infiltrated from Outdoors in Museums and Galleries. 256
8.8.2 Exemplifying Models – The IMPACT Model. A Simple One- Zone Mass balance Model for Use in Museums and Archives 258
8.9 Strategies to Mitigate Outdoor Pollution Effects on Indoor Environments 262
8.9.1 Control of Air Pollutants in the Indoor Environment 262
8.9.2 ‘‘Tolerable’’ Levels for Air Pollutants and Material Damage in Indoor Microclimates 263
8.10 Conservation & Maintenance Strategies
8.10.1 General Principles 264
8.11 National and Regional Organizations and Guidance 266
8.11.1 Legislative Organisations – UK 266
8.11.2 Legislative Guidance – Czech Republic 268
8.11.3 Legislative Guidance – Spain 270
8.11.4 Responding to Threats to the Cultural Heritage 271
8.12 Conclusions 272
References 272
Sources of Additional Information 275
Air Quality Policy 276
9.1 Overview 276
9.2 Factors in Policy Development 277
9.3 Elements of Good Policy 279
9.4 The Regulatory Regime in Europe 282
9.4.1 European Air Quality Standards and Guidelines 282
9.4.2 National Air Quality Objectives 285
9.5 The Regulatory Regime in the United States of America 286
9.6 Critical Loads and Levels 286
9.7 Local Air Quality Management 288
9.8 Developing Local Air Quality Management Options 290
9.9 Tolerable Levels of Pollution? 292
9.10 How do we Address a Policy Deficit? 295
9.11 International Policy 296
9.11.1 Role of Standards 298
9.11.2 Exposure Reduction Approach 298
9.12 Conclusions 299
References 300
Sources of Additional Information 302
Index 303