Fundamentals of Basin and Petroleum Systems Modeling (eBook)

Preface 5
Contents 10
Introduction to Basin Modeling 16
History 16
Geological Processes 18
Structure of a Model 23
Petroleum Systems Modeling 35
Modeling Workflows 39
Structural Restoration 41
Comparison with Reservoir Modeling 42
Outlook 43
Summary 43
References 45
Pore Pressure, Compaction and Tectonics 46
Introduction 46
Bulk Stresses 46
Pore Pressure Formation and Fluid Flow 48
Compaction and Porosity Reduction 50
Terzaghi Type Models 52
Basic Formulation 53
Mechanical Compaction 57
Permeability and Viscosity 66
1D Pressure Solutions 71
Pressure Solutions in 2D and 3D 74
Special Processes of Pressure Formation 80
Chemical Compaction 80
Fluid Expansion Models 85
Overpressure Calibration 90
Geomechanical Models 92
Stress and Deformation 93
Failure Analysis 96
Faults 101
Paleo--Models 105
Event--Stepping 106
Paleo--Stepping 108
Overthrusting 110
Summary 111
References 114
Heat Flow Analysis 117
Introduction 117
One Dimensional (1D) Models 119
Steady State Models 119
Transient Effect 121
Thermal Conductivity 124
Rock and Mineral Functions 126
Pore Fluid Functions 128
Specific Heat Capacity 130
Rock and Mineral Functions 131
Pore Fluid Functions 132
Radiogenic Heat 133
Three Dimensional Heat Flow Equation 133
Heat Convection 136
Magmatic Intrusions 139
Permafrost 139
SWI Temperatures 140
Crustal Models for Basal Heat Flow Prediction 143
The Principle of Isostasy 148
Heat Flow Models 151
Workflow Crustal Preprocessing 153
Heat Flow Calibration 157
Example Workflow for 3D Heat Calibration 159
Summary 161
References 163
Petroleum Generation 165
Introduction 165
Distributed Reactivity Kinetics 166
Petroleum Generation Kinetics 170
Bulk Kinetics 173
Oil--Gas Kinetics 175
Compositional Kinetics 177
Thermal Calibration Parameters 183
Vitrinite Reflectance 183
Molecular Biomarkers 190
Tmax Values 191
Isotopic Fractionation 194
Fission--Track Analysis 195
Adsorption 197
Biodegradation 202
Source Rock Analysis 205
Summary 208
References 210
Fluid Analysis 213
Introduction 213
Water Phase 215
Binary Mixtures and Black Oil Models 217
Equations of State (EOS) 221
Mixing Rules 224
Phase Equilibrium 225
Flash Calculations 227
Classification of Petroleum 231
PT--Paths 231
Property Prediction 232
Density 232
Bubble Point Pressure 238
Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) 239
Oil Formation Volume Factor Bo 239
Viscosity 241
Interfacial Tension (IFT) 247
Calibration of a Fluid Model 249
Calibration and Fluid Heavy End 250
Tuning of Pseudo--Component Parameters 251
Tuning of the Binary Interaction Parameter (BIP) 254
Gas Hydrates 255
Summary 256
References 257
Migration and Accumulation 260
Introduction 260
Geological Background 261
Multi--Phase Darcy Flow 263
Capillary Pressure 267
Pressure at Phase Boundaries 272
Three Phase Flow Formulation without Phase Changes 274
Multicomponent Flow Equations with Phase Changes 278
Black Oil Model 279
Diffusion 280
Reservoirs 281
Flowpath Analysis 283
Drainage Area Analysis 285
Accumulation Analysis 289
Faults and Small Scale Features 293
Overpressure and Waterflow 295
Non--Ideal Reservoirs 296
Hybrid Method 299
Domain Decomposition 300
Break Through 302
Fault Flow 305
Flowpath Modeling 308
Invasion Percolation 310
Physical Background 311
Percolation on Microscopic Length Scales 317
Upscaling of Microscopic Percolation 319
One Phase Invasion Percolation 322
Two Phase Migration with Displacement 325
Discretization of Space and Property Assignment 326
Anisotropy 330
Discussion 332
Mass Balances 340
Fundamental Laws of Mass Conservation 340
The Petroleum System 343
Reservoir Structures and Accumulations 345
Summary 347
References 349
Risk Analysis 354
Introduction 354
Monte Carlo Simulation 357
Uncertainty Distributions 361
Derived Uncertainty Parameters 364
Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHC) 365
Uncertainty Correlations 367
Analysis of Results 370
Model Data 372
Bayesian Approach 373
Prior Information of Derived Parameters 378
Correlations of Priors 378
Prior Information of Nominal Uncertainties 378
Deterministic Sampling 380
Cubical Design 381
Other Deterministic Designs 382
Metamodels 383
Response Surfaces 383
Fast Thermal Simulation 385
Kriging 388
Neural Networks 389
Other Methods for Metamodeling 389
Calibration with Markov Chain Monte Carlo Series 389
Summary 390
References 391
Mathematical Methods 394
Introduction 394
Physical Quantities 395
Mixing Rules and Upscaling 397
Finite Differences 400
Finite Element Method 402
Control Volumes 407
Solver 409
Parallelization 409
Local Grid Refinement (LGR) 412
Tartan Grid 413
Windowing 413
Coupled Model in Model 414
Faults 415
Summary 416
References 417
Compaction and Flow Parameter 418
Deviation of the Pressure Equation 426
Analytic Groundwater Flow Solution from Tóth 428
One Dimensional Consolidation Solution from Gibson 431
Thermal Properties 433
Analytic Solutions to Selected Heat Flow Problems 440
Influence of Radiogenic Heat Production on a Steady State Temperature Profile 441
Steady State Temperature Profile with a Lateral Basal Heat Flow Jump 441
Steady State Temperature Profile with SWI Temperature Jump 443
Steady State Temperature Profile for a Two Block Model 444
Non Steady State Model with Heat Flow Jump 445
Non Steady State Model with SWI Temperature Jump 447
An Estimate for the Impact of Continuous Deposition on Heat Flow 448
Petroleum Kinetics 452
Biomarker 456
Component Properties 460
Methane Density 468
Compositions and Components for Fig. 5.14 470
An Analytic Solution for the Diffusion of Methane Through a Cap Rock 471
Flowpath Bending 473
Unit Conversions and Constants 477
Index 479