Parasitology

Preface 1 Animal associations 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Animal associations 1.2.1 Symbiosis 1.2.2 Commensalism 1.2.3 Phoresis 1.2.4 Mutualism 1.2.5 Parasitism 1.2.6 Intra-specific parasites 1.2.7 Parasitoids 1.2.8 The concept of harm 1.3 Parasite hosts 1.3.1 Protozoa and helminths as hosts 1.3.2 Classes of hosts for parasites 1.4 The co-evolution of parasites and their hosts 1.4.1 Evolutionary relationships between host and parasite 1.4.2 Parasites and the evolution of sexual reproduction 1.5 Parasitism as a 'lifestyle': advantages and limitations 1.5.1 Main advantages of a parasitic lifestyle 1.5.2 Main limitations of a parasitic life style 1.6 The economic cost of parasitic diseases 1.6.1 Economic consequences of parasitic diseases of humans 1.6.2 Economic consequences of parasitic diseases of domestic animals 1.6.3 Estimating the costs of morbidity due to disease 1.6.4 Economic consequences of parasitic diseases of wildlife 1.7 Why parasitic diseases remain a problem 1.8 Taxonomy 1.8.1 The binomen system Questions 2 Parasitic protozoa, fungi and plants 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Parasitic protozoa 2.2.1 Kingdom Protista 2.3 Phylum Rhizopoda 2.3.1 Genus Entamoeba 2.3.2 Other species of pathogenic amoebae 2.4 Phylum Metamonada 2.4.1 Order Diplomonadida 2.4.2 Order Trichomonadida 2.5 Phylum Apicomplexa 2.5.1 Genus Plasmodium 2.5.2 Plasmodium life cycle 2.5.3 Genus Theileria 2.5.4 Genus Babesia 2.6 Subclass Coccidiasina 2.6.1 Suborder Eimeriorina 2.6.2 Isospora group 2.6.3 Genus Cyclospora 2.6.4 Family Sarcocystidae 2.6.5 Genus Toxoplasma 2.6.6 Genus Neospora 2.6.7 Family Cryptosporidiidae 2.7 Phylum Kinetoplastida 2.7.1 Genus Leishmania 2.7.2 Leishmania life cycle 2.7.3 Genus Trypanosoma 2.8 Phylum Chlorophyta 2.8.1 Genus Prototheca 2.9 Kingdom fungi 2.9.1 Microsporidia 2.10 Kingdom plantae Questions 3 Helminth parasites 3.1 Introduction: invertebrate taxonomy 3.2 Phylum Platyhelminthes 3.3 Class Trematoda 3.3.1 Family Fasciolidae 3.3.2 Family Cathaemasiidae: Genus Ribeiroia 3.3.3 Family Dicrocoeliidae 3.3.4 Family Opisthorchiformes 3.3.5 Family Paragonomidae 3.3.6 Family Schistosomatidae 3.4 Class Cestoda 3.4.1 Order Pseudophyllidea/Diphyllobothriidea 3.4.2 Order Cyclophyllidea 3.4.3 Family Taeniidae 3.4.4 Family Anoplocephalidae 3.5 Phylum Acanthocephala 3.6 Phylum Nematoda (Nemata) 3.6.1 Class Enoplea 3.6.2 Class Rhabdita 3.6.3 Family Onchocercidae 3.6.4 Family Dracunculidae Questions 4 Arthropod parasites 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Phylum Chelicerata 4.2.1 Family Demodicidae 4.2.2 Family Sarcoptidae 4.2.3 Family Psoroptidae 4.2.4 Suborder Ixodida 4.2.5 Family Argasidae 4.2.6 Family Ixodidae 4.2.7 Tick paralysis 4.3 Phylum Crustacea 4.3.1 Subclass Copepoda 4.3.2 Infra-Class Cirripedia 4.3.3 Subclass Branchiura 4.3.4 Subclass Pentastomida - tongue worms 4.4 Sub-phylum Hexapoda 4.4.1 Order Phthiraptera (lice) 4.4.2 Order Siphonaptera (fleas) 4.4.3 Order Diptera (true flies) 4.4.4 Suborder Nematocera 4.4.5 Suborder Brachycera 4.4.6 Family Calliphoridae 4.4.7 Genus Chrysomya 4.4.8 Genus Cochliomyia 4.4.9 Genus Auchmeromyia 4.4.10 Genus Cordylobia 4.4.11 Family Sarcophagidae 4.4.12 Family Oestridae 4.4.13 Subfamily Gasterophilinae 4.4.14 Subfamily Hypodermatinae 4.4.15 Subfamily Cuterebrinae 4.4.16 Family Streblidae 4.4.17 Family Nycteribiidae Questions 5 Parasite transmission 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Contaminative transmission 5.3 Transmission associated with reproduction 5.3.1 Sexual transmission 5.3.2 Transmission within the gametes 5.3.3 Congenital transmission 5.4 Autoinfection 5.5 Nosocomial transmission 5.6 Active parasite transmission 5.7 Hosts and vectors 5.7.1 Paratenic hosts 5.7.2 Intermediate hosts 5.7.3 Vectors 5.8 Host factors 5.8.1 Host identification 5.8.2 The influence of host behaviour on parasite transmission 5.9 Co-transmission and interactions between infectious agents 5.10 How religion can influence parasite transmission 5.11 The influence of war on parasite transmission 5.12 The influence of parasites on host behaviour 5.13 Environmental factors 5.13.1 Natural environmental variables 5.13.2 Pollution 5.13.3 Global warming Questions 6 Immune reactions to parasitic infections 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Invertebrate immunity 6.3 Vertebrate immunity 6.3.1 Innate immunity 6.3.2 Adaptive immunity 6.3.3 Cell-mediated immunity 6.4 Innate immunity to parasitic infection 6.4.1 Physical factors 6.4.2 Chemical and microbial factors 6.4.3 The acute inflammatory response 6.4.4 Cell-mediated immunity 6.5 Adaptive immunity 6.5.1 Avoiding the host immune response 6.5.2 Depression of the immune system 6.6 Immunity to malaria 6.7 Schistosoma mansoni and Hepatitis C virus interactions 6.8 HIV-AIDS and parasitic disease 6.8.1 Parasites and the transmission of HIV 6.8.2 Parasite-HIV co-infections 6.8.3 Leishmania-HIV co-infections 6.8.4 Malaria-HIV co-infections 6.8.5 Toxoplasma-HIV co-infections 6.8.6 Microsporidia-HIV co-infections Questions 7 Pathology 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Factors that influence pathogenesis 7.2.1 Host factors that influence pathogenesis 7.2.2 Parasite factors that influence pathogenesis 7.3 Mechanisms by which parasites induce pathology 7.3.1 Direct damage 7.3.2 Indirect damage 7.4 Types of pathology 7.4.1 Abortion and obstetric pathology 7.4.2 Anaemia 7.4.3 Anorexia 7.4.4 Apoptosis 7.4.5 Calcification 7.4.6 Cancer 7.4.7 Castration 7.4.8 Delusional parasitosis 7.4.9 Diarrhoea 7.4.10 Elephantiasis 7.4.11 Fever 7.4.12 Granulation and fibrosis 7.4.13 Hyperplasia 7.4.14 Hypertrophy 7.4.15 Inflammation and ulceration 7.4.16 Jaundice 7.4.17 Metaplasia 7.4.18 Pressure atrophy 7.4.19 Psychological disturbance 7.5 Damage to specific organs 7.5.1 The bladder 7.5.2 The brain 7.5.3 The digestive system 7.5.4 The genitalia 7.5.5 The kidney 7.5.6 The liver 7.5.7 The lungs 7.5.8 The skin 7.5.9 The spleen 7.6 Co-infections and pathogenesis Questions 8 The useful parasite 8.1 Introduction: the goodness of parasites? 8.2 The importance of parasites for the maintenance of a healthy immune system 8.2.1 The hygiene hypothesis 8.2.2 Type 1 diabetes mellitus 8.2.3 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) 8.2.4 Inflammatory bowel disease 8.3 The use of parasites to treat medical conditions 8.3.1 Helminth therapy 8.3.2 Larval therapy 8.3.3 Leech therapy 8.3.4 Malaria therapy (malariotherapy) 8.4 Parasites as sources of novel pharmaceutically-active compounds 8.5 Parasites as biological control agents 8.5.1 Life cycle of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis and Steinernema 8.6 Parasites as forensic indicators Questions 9 Identification of protozoan and helminth parasites 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The importance of correct identification 9.3 Properties of an ideal diagnostic test 9.4 Isolation of parasites 9.5 Identification from gross morphology 9.5.1 Morphological identification of Entamoeba 9.5.2 Morphological identification of Plasmodium and Babesia 9.5.3 Morphological identification of Taenia tapeworms 9.5.4 Morphological identification of filarial nematode infections 9.6 Biochemical techniques 9.7 Immunological techniques 9.8 Molecular techniques 9.9 Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) 9.9.1 Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria 9.9.2 Rapid diagnostic test for filariasis 9.10 MALDI-TOF MS Questions 10 Parasite treatment and control 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Importance of understanding parasite life cycles for effective treatment and control 10.3 Treatment of parasitic diseases 10.3.1 The ideal antiparasitic drug 10.3.2 Pharmaceutical drugs 10.3.3 DNA/RNA technology 10.3.4 Molecular chaperones (heat shock proteins) 10.3.5 Nanotechnology 10.3.6 Quantum dots 10.3.7 Natural remedies 10.3.8 Homeopathy 10.4 Vaccines against parasitic diseases 10.4.1 Attenuated vaccines 10.4.2 Killed vaccines 10.4.3 Recombinant vaccines 10.4.4 Toxoid vaccines 10.4.5 DNA vaccines 10.4.6 Vaccine administration 10.5 Control of parasitic diseases 10.5.1 Eradication, elimination and control of parasitic diseases 10.5.2 Education 10.5.3 Environmental modification and cultural control 10.5.4 Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS technology 10.5.5 Treating the individual or the population 10.5.6 Piggy-backing control programmes 10.5.7 Disruptions to control programmes 10.5.8 Role of governments, foundations, and aid organisations Questions References Index