Jet, Rocket, Nuclear, Ion and Electric Propulsion

One - Introduction.- 1. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Aerodynamics.- [1-1] Introduction.- [1-2] Equation of State.- [1-2.1] Equation of State of Real Gases.- [1-3] First Law of Thermodynamics.- [1-3.1] Specific Heats.- [1-3.2] Internal Energy.- [1-3.3] Relationship Between Specific Heats cp and cv.- [1-3.4] Enthalpy.- [1-3.5] Entropy.- [1-3.5.1] Reversible Process.- [1-3.5.2] Adiabatic Process.- [1-3.5.3] Isentropic Process.- [1-3.5.4] Polytropic Process.- [1-3.5.4.1] Work Done.- [1-3.5.4.1.1] Special Case for Isentropic Case where n = k.- [1-3.5.4.1.2] Heat Added.- [1-3.6] Mixture of Gases.- [1-3.7] Entropy-Enthalpy Diagram.- [1-3.7.1] Remarks on Entropy-Enthalpy Diagram.- [1-3.8] The Ideal (Reversible) Cycles.- [1-3.9] Cycle Work, Cycle Heat Added, and Cycle Efficiency.- [1-4] Steady Flow Energy Equation.- [1-4.1] Stagnation Enthalpy or Total Enthalpy, H.- [1-4.2] Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation to Compressor and Turbine Analysis.- [1-5] One-Dimensional Steady Flow Analysis.- [1-5.1] One-Dimensional Energy Equation.- [1-5.2] One-Dimensional Continuity Equation.- [1-5.3] One-Dimensional Momentum Equation without Fluid Shearing or Friction Losses.- [1-5.3.1] One-Dimensional Momentum Equation with Fluid Shearing or Friction Losses.- [1-5.4] Speed of Sound.- [1-5.5] Mach Number.- [1-5.6] Another Form of Energy Equation.- [1-5.7] Isentropic Flow Equations.- [1-6] Normal Shock Waves and Rayleigh and Fanno Lines.- [1-7] Oblique Shock Waves.- [1-8] One-Dimensional Convergent - Divergent Nozzle Flow.- [1-8.1] Nozzle Efficiency.- [1-8.2] Nozzle Thrust.- [1-9] Supersonic Inlet.- [1-9.1] Constant Geometry Supersonic Inlet.- [1-9.2] Variable-Geometry Supersonic Inlet.- [1-9.3] Inlet Diffuser Efficiency.- [1-10] One-Dimensional Flow Analysis with Area Change, Friction and Heat Addition.- [1-10.1] One-Dimensional Flow Analysis with Area Change, Friction and Heat Addition (Additional Analysis).- [1-10.2] Mixing of Two Flows in a Non-Constant Area Duct.- [1-11] Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis.- [1-11.1] Ram Compression and Ram Pressure Recovery.- [1-11.2] Compressor Compression and Compressor Work.- [1-11.3] Combustion and Burner Efficiency.- [1-11.3.1] Combustion.- [1-11.4] Turbine Expansion and Turbine Work.- [1-11.5] Nozzle Expansion and Nozzle Efficiency.- [1-12] Variations of Basic Gas Turbine or Jet Engine Cycles.- [1-12.1] Intercooling.- [1-12.2] Reheat.- [1-12.3] Regeneration.- [1-12.4] After-burning.- [1-12.5] Water Injection.- [1-12.6] Pressure Loss in Various Components.- [1-13.1] Output, Input and Thermal Efficiency.- [1-13.2] Jet Thrust.- [1-13.3] Propeller Thrust.- [1-13.4] Specific Fuel Consumption.- [1-14] Variations of Gas Turbine Cycle and Turbojet Cycle by Gas Table Method.- [1-14.1] Gas Table.- [1-14.2] Example 1: Gas Turbine Analysis.- [1-14.3] Example 2: Turbojet Analysis.- Two - Jet Propulsion.- 2. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis of Gas Turbines and Air-breathing Propulsion Systems.- [2-1] Introduction.- [2-2] Symbols and Sketches of Air-breathing Propulsion Systems.- [2-3] Gas Turbine Cycles.- [2-4] Air-breathing Propulsion Systems: Turbojet, Turboprop, Ducted Fan, Ram Jet and Ducted Rocket.- [2-4.1] Turbojet Cycles.- [2-4.2] Turboprop Cycles.- [2-4.3] Ducted Fan Cycles.- [2-4.4] Off-Design Point Engines.- [2-4.4.1] Compression Rate Variation with Altitude and Air Speed (Variation with Compressor Inlet Temperature) at Constant Compressor Speed.- [2-4.4.2] Air Flow Variation with Altitude and Airplane Speed at Constant Compressor Speed.- [2-5] Rotary Matrix Regenerator for Turboprop Applications.- [2-5.1] Discussion.- [2-5.2] Operating Principles.- [2-5.3] Theory and Design.- [2-6] Analytical Solutions for Rotary Matrix, Wire Screen Heat Exchangers.- [2-7] Pulse Jet.- [2-7.1] Discharging from Point c to Point a.- [2-7.1.1] Supercritical Discharging When (P/p ? [(k + 1)/2] k/(k ? 1).- [2-7.1.2] Subcritical Discharging When (P/p ? [(k + 1)/2] k/(k? 1).- [2-7.2] Combustion from Point b to Point c.- [2-7.3] Charging Process from Point a to Point b.- [2-7.3.1] Supercritical Charging and Subcritical Discharging.- [2-7.3.2] Subcritical Charging and Subcritical Discharging.- [2-7.3.3] Subcritical Charging and Supercritical Discharging.- 3. Aerodynamic Design of Axial Flow Compressors and Turbines.- [3-1] Introduction.- [3-2] Compressible Flow Analysis.- [3-2.1] Radial Equilibrium.- [3-2.2] Continuity Equation.- [3-2.3] Density Relationship.- [3-2.4] Method of Calculation.- [3-3] Turbine Analysis.- [3-4] Appendix: Two Dimensional Incompressible Compressor Design.- [3-4.1] Turning Angle ? as f(CL) and Derivation of Blade Efficiency ?b.- 4. Ramjets and Air-Augmented Rockets.- [4-1] Preliminary Performance Calculations.- [4-2] Diffuser Design.- [4-2.1] Inviscid Design of External-Compression Diffusers.- [4-2.2] Off-Design Operation, Boundary Layer Problems, and Instabilities.- [4-2.3] Hypersonic Inlets.- [4-3] Combustor and Nozzle Design.- [4-4] Considerations for Preliminary Design of Ramjet Vehicles.- [4-5] Air-Augmented Rockets.- [4-6] Engines with Supersonic Combustion.- [4-7] Concluding Remarks.- [4-8] Acknowledgments.- [4-9] Nomenclature.- Three - Rocket Propulsion.- 5. Rocket Classifications, Liquid Propellant Rockets, Engine Selection, and Heat Transfer.- [5-1] Definitions and Classification of Rocket Propulsion Engines.- [5-2] Liquid Propellant Rockets.- [5-3] Selection Criteria.- [5-4] Heat Transfer (based largely on Reference 7).- [5-4.1] Radiation Cooling.- [5-4.2] Heat-Sink Cooling.- [5-4.3] Low Flame Temperature Metal Chamber.- [5-4.4] Turbine Exhaust Gas Cooling.- [5-4.5] Insulation Cooling.- [5-4.6] Dump Cooling.- [5-4.7] Ablative Cooling.- [5-4.8] Regenerative Cooling.- [5-4.9] Film Cooling.- [5-4.10] Transpiration Cooling.- [5-4.11] Combined Methods.- 6. Solid Propellant Rockets.- [6-1] Composition of a Solid Propellant.- [6-2] Processability Criteria.- [6-3] Performance of Typical Propellants.- [6-4] Burning Rate - Pressure Relationships.- [6-5] Propellant Area Ratio.- [6-6] Temperature Sensitivity of Burning Equations.- [6-7] Erosive Burning.- [6-8] Effect of Spin on Burning Rate.- [6-9] Mechanism of Homogeneous Propellant Burning.- [6-10] Mechanism of Composite Propellant Burning.- [6-11] Correlation of Burning Rates with Oxidizer Activation Energy.- [6-12] Effect of Composition on Burning Rate.- [6-13] Catalysts.- [6-14] Mechanical Properties.- [6-14.1] Uniaxial Tensile Test.- [6-14.2] Uniaxial Shear Test.- [6-14.3] Bulk Dilution Test.- [6-14.4] Poisson's Ratio.- [6-14.5] Glass Transition.- [6-15] Nomenclature.- 7. Hybrid Rocket Theory and Design.- [7-1] Introduction.- [7-2] Hybrid Combustion with Negligible Radiation.- [7-2.1] The Physical Process.- [7-2.2] Convective Heat Transfer.- [7-2.3] The Role of Nonvolatile Particles.- [7-3] Operating Characteristics of Hybrid Rockets with Negligible Radiation.- [7-3.1] Regression Rate Insensitivity to Thermochemical Parameters.- [7-3.2] Regression Rate Dependence Upon Grain Configuration.- [7-3.3] Throttling and Off-Design Point Operation.- [7-3.4] Combustion Efficiency.- [7-3.5] Regression Rate Dependence Upon Pressure.- [7-4] Hybrid Combustion in Radiative Motors.- [7-4.1] Regression Rate Dependence Upon Radiant Energy Flux.- [7-4.2] Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Qc.- [7-4.3] Evaluation of Radiative Heat Transfer Qr.- [7-5] Transient Operation of Hybrid Rockets.- [7-5.1] Penetration of Temperature Profile.- [7-5.2] Critical Regression Rate.- [7-6] Design of Hybrid Rockets.- [7-6.1] Specification of Mission.- [7-6.2] Preliminary Design Procedure.- [7-6.3] Example Configurations.- Four - Nuclear Propulsion.- 8. Nuclear Rocket Prqpulsion.- [8-1] Nuclear Rocket Engine Design and Performance.- [8-1.1] Types of Nuclear Rockets.- [8-1.2] Overall Engine Design.- [8-1.3] Nuclear Rocket Performance.- [8-2] Component Design.- [8-2.1] Nuclear Rocket Reactors.- [8-2.1.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.1.2] Reactor Core Materials.- [8-2.1.3] Thermal Design.- [8-2.1.4] Mechanical Design.- [8-2.1.5] Nuclear Design.- [8-2.1.6] Shielding.- [8-2.2] Nuclear Rocket Nozzles.- [8-2.2.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.2.2] Heat-Transfer Analysis.- [8-2.2.2.1] Over-all Problem.- [8-2.2.2.2] Hot-Gas Boundary.- [8-2.2.2.3] Cold-Gas Boundary.- [8-2.3] Propellant Feed Systems.- [8-2.3.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.3.2] Turbopump Power Cycle.- [8-2.3.3] Turbopump.- [8-2.3.3.1] Pumps.- [8-2.3.3.2] Turbines.- [8-2.3.3.3] Power Transmission.- [8-2.3.3.4] Critical Speeds.- [8-2.3.4] Valves.- [8-2.4] Nuclear Rocket Engine Control.- [8-2.4.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.4.2] Power Level Control.- [8-2.4.3] Chamber-Pressure Control.- [8-2.5] Thrust-Vector-Control Systems.- [8-2.5.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.5.2] Types of Systems.- [8-2.5.2.1] Auxiliary Thrusters.- [8-2.5.2.2] Jet-Deflection Systems.- [8-2.5.2.2.1] Fluid-Injection Systems.- [8-2.5.2.2.2] Jetevators and Jet Vanes.- [8-2.5.2.3] Gimbal Systems.- 9. Radioisotope Propulsion.- [9-1] Alternative Approaches.- [9-1.1] Direct Recoil Method.- [9-1.2] Thermal Heating Method.- [9-2] Basic Thruster Configurations.- [9-3] Propulsion System and Upper Stage.- [9-4] Relative Mission Capabilities.- [9-4.1] Primary Propulsion.- [9-4.2] Auxiliary Propulsion.- [9-5] Thruster Technology.- [9-5.1] Design Criteria.- [9-5.1.1] Performance.- [9-5.1.2] Safety.- [9-5.1.3] Design Criteria Summary.- [9-5.2] Heat Source Development.- [9-5.2.1] Radioisotope Fuel.- [9-5.2.2] Capsule Technology.- [9-5.2.2.1] General Considerations.- [9-5.2.3] Thermal Design.- [9-5.2.4] Fabrication and Non-Destructive Testing Techniques.- [9-5.2.5] Pressure Containment.- [9-5.2.6] Impact.- [9-5.2.7] Heat Source Simulation.- [9-5.2.8] Oxidation and Corrosion of Encapsulating Materials.- [9-5.3] Nozzle Performance.- [9-6] Summary.- Five - Electric and ION Propulsion.- 10. Electric and Ion Propulsion.- [10-1] Basic Concepts.- [10-1.1] Energy Sources.- [10-1.2] The Separately Powered Rocket.- [10-1.3] Effects of Variable Mass.- [10-1.4] Power Requirements and Rocket Efficiency.- [10-1.5] Effects of Gravitational Fields.- [10-2] Thrust Devices.- [10-2.1] Thermal Thrusters.- [10-2.1.1] The Resistojet.- [10-2.1.2] Arc Jets.- [10-2.1.3] Ablative Thrusters.- [10-2.2] Electrostatic Thrusters.- [10-2.2.1] Ion Engines.- [10-2.2.1.1] High Pressure Arcs (Duoplasmatron).- [10-2.2.1.2] Contact Thrusters.- [10-2.2.1.3] The Bombardment Thruster.- [10-2.2.2] Colloid Thrusters.- [10-2.3] Plasma Thrusters.- [10-2.3.1] j x B Machines.- [10-2.3.2] MPD Arcs.- [10-2.3.3] Pulsed Inductive Accelerators.- [10-3] State of the Art and Future Trends.- [10-3.1] Sample Problem 1.- [10-3.2] Sample Problem 2.- [10-3.3] Sample Problem 3.- 11. Ion Propulsion.- [11-1] Introduction.- [11-2] Fundamentals.- [11-2.1] Performance Analysis.- [11-2.1.1] Characteristic Velocity.- [11-2.1.2] Payload.- [11-2.1.3] Specific Power.- [11-2.2] Electrical Thrust Devices.- [11-2.2.1] Ion and Colloid.- [11-3] Ion Rocket Engine.- [11-3.1] Ion Sources.- [11-3.2] Electromagnetic Fields.- [11-3.3] Charged Colloid Sources.- Six - Theory on Combustion, Detonation and Fluid Injection.- 12. Interaction Flows Due to Supersonic Secondary Jets.- [12-1] Introduction.- [12-2] Jets Directed Upstream.- [12-3] Transverse Jets.- [12-4] Summary.- 13. Gasdynamics of Explosions.- [13-1] Theoretical Aspects.- [13-1.1] Fundamentals of Non-steady Gasdynamics.- [13-1.1.1] Continuity Equation.- [13-1.1.2] Equation of Motion.- [13-1.1.3] Entropy Equation.- [13-1.1.4] Characteristic Relations.- [13-1.2] Gasdynamic Discontinuity.- [13-1.2.1] Mechanical Conditions.- [13-1.2.2] The Hugoniot Relationship.- [13-1.2.3] Oblique Discontinuity.- [13-1.3] Simple Wave.- [13-1.3.1] Simple Wave in Non-Steady Flow.- [13-1.3.2] Simple Wave in Steady Flow.- [13-2] Analytical Aspects.- [13-2.1] Vector Polar Method.- [13-2.1.1] Wave Interactions.- [13-2.1.2] Wave Intersections.- [13-3] Appendix: Salient Properties of the Hugoniot Curve.- 14. Supersonic Combustion Technology.- [14-1] Introduction.- [14-2] Performance of Supersonic Combustion Ramjet.- [14-2.1] Possible Air-breathing Engine Schemes.- [14-3] Supersonic Combustion.- [14-3.1] Qualitative Description of Supersonic Combustion Controlled by Mixing.- [14-3.1.1] Supersonic Combustion Controlled by Diffusion.- [14-3.1.2] Supersonic Combustion Controlled by Heat Convection.- [14-3.2] Analysis of the Reaction Process.- [14-3.2.1] Determination of Reaction Times.- [14-3.2.2] Numerical Results.- [14-3.2.3] Discussion of Results.- [14-3.2.4] Tangential Injection with Chemical Reaction.- [14-3.3] Analysis of Mixing Processes.- [14-3.3.1] Mixing of Non-Reacting Flows.- [14-3.3.2] Discussion of Experimental Results of Non-Reacting Gases.- [14-3.3.3] Mixing with Pressure Gradients.- 15. Combustion Instability Theory.- [15-1] Introduction.- [15-1.1] Unstable Combustion.- [15-2] Review of Theoretical Developments.- [15-2.1] Early Developments and the Time Lag Concept.- [15-2.2] Current Status in Liquid Propellant Rockets.- [15-2.3] Current Status in Solid Propellant Rockets.- [15-3] Formulation and Analysis.- [15-3.1] Low Frequency, Capacitive Type Stability.- [15-3.2] High Frequency, Wave Type Instability.- [15-3.3) The Energy Approach.- [15-3.4] Non-linear Effects.- [15-3.5] Nozzle Outflow.- [15-4] Concluding Remarks.- Seven - Advanced Concepts and Mission Applications.- 16. An Advanced Space Propulsion Concept.- [16-1] Introduction.- [16-1.1] General Consideration for Propulsion in Space.- [16-1.2] Power Supply.- [16-1.3] Propellant Storage and Handling Facilities.- [16-1.4] Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Thrusters.- [16-1.5] Advanced Electric Propulsion Systems for Space Vehicles.- [16-2] Sputtering, A Thrust Generation Mechanism.- [16-2.1] Sputtering Phenomena.- [16-2.2] Possible Performance of Sputtering Thrusters.- [16-2.3] Energy Efficiency of the Sputtering Process.- [16-3] Analyses of an Elementary Mission with Different Electric Thrusters.- [16-3.1] General Consideration.- [16-3.2] Performance Formula for Electric Thrusters.- [16-3.3] Optimization with Electric Thrusters.- [16-4] Summary and Concluding Remarks.- 17. Zero g Propulsion Problems.- [17-1] Introduction.- [17-2] Basic Definitions.- [17-2.1] Zero Gravity.- [17-2.2] Engineering Considerations of Zero-g Environment.- [17-2.3]Principle of Minimum Energy.- [17-3] Hydrostatics.- [17-3.1] The Variational Problem.- [17-3.2] Solutions for the Variational Problem.- [17-3.3] Conclusions from Hydrostatic Analysis.- [17-4] Static Configurations in Zero g.- [17-5] Hydrodynamics.- [17-5.1] Propellant Slosh at Zero g.- [17-5.2] Propellant-Position Control.- [17-5.3] Capillary Stability.- [17-6] Dimensional Analysis, Modeling, and Test.- [17-6.1] Gas Interface Velocity.- [17-6.2] Propellant Accumulation.- [17-6.3] Gas Ingestion.- [17-6.4] Analytical Considerations of Gas Ingestion.- [17-7] Capillary Barriers.- [17-7.1] Static Stability.- [17-7.2] Dynamic Stability.- [17-8] Zero g Propellant Gauging.- [17-9] Summary and Conclusions.- [17-10] Appendix A. Derivation of Slosh Frequency.- [17-11] Appendix B. Derivation of Flow Rate during Propellant Settling.- 18. Propulsion Systems-Comparison and Evaluation for Space Missions.- [18-1] Goals.- [18-2] Propulsion-Vehicle-Mission Integration.- [18-3] Elements of Integrated Transportation System Comparison (ELV, GISV, CISV and HISC).