Color and Appearance in Dentistry (eBook)

Preface 6
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 8
About the Editors 9
1: Color Science and Its Application in Dentistry 10
1.1 Color Measurements and Whiteness Indexes 10
1.1.1 CIE Standard Observers 11
1.1.1.1 CIE 1931 Standard Colorimetric Observer 11
1.1.1.2 CIE [2] Standard Colorimetric Observer 13
1.1.2 CIE Color Space 14
1.1.2.1 CIE 1976 (L?a?b?) Color Space—CIELAB 15
1.1.3 Color-Difference Formulas 17
1.1.4 Whiteness Indexes 20
1.2 Optical Properties and Measuring Methods 22
1.2.1 Optical Properties 22
1.2.1.1 Scattering 22
1.2.1.2 Absorption 22
1.2.1.3 Transmittance 23
1.2.1.4 Radiative Transport Equation 23
1.2.1.5 Translucency and Opacity 24
1.2.1.6 Opalescence and Fluorescence 25
1.2.2 Methods of Measuring Optical Properties 27
1.2.2.1 Kubelka–Munk Theory 28
1.2.2.2 Inverse Adding-Doubling Method 31
1.2.3 Application of Color Science and Optical Properties to Dental Structures and Dental Materials 34
1.2.3.1 Color of Tooth 34
1.2.3.2 Optical Properties of Dental Structures and Dental Materials 36
The Anisotropy Factor (g) 37
Absorption Coefficient (?a) and Scattering Coeffficient (?s) 37
Absorption (K) and Scattering (S) Coefficients, Transmittance (T), and Reflectivity (RI) According to the Kubelka–Munk Theory 37
Further Readings 44
2: Teaching and Training Color Determination in Dentistry 48
2.1 Teaching and Training Color Science in Dentistry 48
2.2 Applying Methodologies to Dental Students and Dentists 50
2.3 Teaching and Learning Methods 51
2.4 Scientific Communication 54
Further Readings 54
3: Visual Shade Matching 56
3.1 Physiology of the Eye and Vision 57
3.1.1 Anatomical Structure of the Human Eye 57
3.1.1.1 Equivalent Power and Focal Lengths 58
3.1.1.2 Cornea 60
3.1.1.3 Anterior Chamber 61
3.1.1.4 Iris and Pupil 61
3.1.1.5 Lens 61
3.1.1.6 Retina 63
3.1.2 Field of Vision 64
3.1.3 Accommodation 64
3.1.4 Depth of Focus and Depth of Field 66
3.1.5 Evaluation of the Amount of Light 66
3.1.5.1 Luminous Efficiency Curve 67
3.1.5.2 Scopic Vision 69
3.2 Color Perception 70
3.2.1 Color Vision 70
3.2.2 Subjectivity of Color Vision Determination in Dentistry 71
3.3 Description of Available Dental Shade Guides and Shades Matching Procedures 72
3.3.1 VITA Classical and Lumin Vacuum Shade Guides 72
3.3.2 VITA System 3D-Master 73
3.4 Perceptibility and Acceptability Thresholds 78
3.4.1 Color Perceptibility and Acceptability Thresholds (PT and AT) Apply to Dentistry 78
3.4.2 Whiteness Perceptibility and Acceptability Thresholds in Dentistry 80
3.4.3 Translucency Perceptibility and Acceptability Thresholds in Dentistry 84
Further Readings 87
4: Instrumental Shade Matching 89
4.1 Science and Technology of Instruments to Measure Color, Color Coordinates, and Optical Properties 90
4.2 Reliability of Dental Color-Measuring Devices 94
4.3 Reproducibility and Inter-Device Agreement for Dental Color Measurement Devices 94
4.4 Agreement Between Visual and Instrumental Shade Matching 95
4.5 Objective Values and Their Adequate Interpretation 96
4.6 Color Stability of Dental Materials 97
4.7 Objective Shade Matching 99
4.8 Clinical Relevance and Application of Whiteness Indices: Monitoring Bleaching Process and Efficiency 100
Further Readings 104
5: Color Management and Communication in Dentistry 107
5.1 Digital Photography and Ambient Setup for Dental Photography 107
5.1.1 Visual Shade Matching Environment 108
5.1.2 Electronic Flash 108
5.1.3 Photographic Tools Used in Dental Shade Matching 109
5.2 Imaging Assisting Shade Determination 113
5.3 Dentist–Patient Communication 116
5.4 Dentist–Lab Technician Communication 121
Further Readings 121
6: Avoiding Complications and Pitfalls with Color in Dentistry 123
6.1 Recognizing Color Blindness 123
6.2 Instruction and Experience to Apply Color Science in Dentistry 129
6.3 Management of Color Challenging Restorative Dentistry 136
Further Readings 139
7: Future Developments Using Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Dentistry 142
7.1 Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry 142
7.2 Fuzzy Dental Color Spaces: Overcoming the Problem of the Association Between Objective and Subjective Shade Matching 143
7.3 Applied Research on Neural Networks and Other Machine Learning Techniques in Dentistry 145
7.4 A Glance to the Future 147
Further Readings 147