Formation and Control of Biofilm in Various Environments (eBook)

Preface: A Message from the Authors 6
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 8
About the Authors 11
1 Introduction 13
References 17
2 Fundamentals for Biofilms 24
2.1 Bacteria and Biofilms 24
2.2 General Sketch for Biofilm Formation and Growth 27
2.3 Biofilm Constituents 28
2.4 Exopolymeric Substances 28
2.5 Quorum Sensing 36
2.6 Biofilm Collapse and Removal 38
2.7 Biofilm and Infection 39
References 44
3 Animate Substrata and Biofilms 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Introduction 52
3.2.1 Biofilm on Leaves 52
3.3 Biofilms on Animal (and Human) Tissues 56
3.3.1 What Happens Inside of Our Bodies, When Pathogenic Bacteria Enter Them? 57
3.3.2 The Characteristics of Bacteria in Biofilms 59
References 60
4 Biofilms in Nature and Artificial Materials 68
4.1 Natural Substrates 68
4.2 Artificial Substrates 70
4.3 Metals 78
4.4 Ceramics 81
4.5 Polymers 85
References 88
5 Laboratory Biofilm Reactors 91
5.1 In Vitro Systems 92
5.2 Static Systems 94
5.3 Flow Systems 95
5.4 Quasi-natural Systems (Ex Vivo Systems) 98
5.5 In Vivo Systems 104
References 106
6 Detection and Evaluation of Biofilms 119
6.1 Biological Methods 119
6.1.1 Staining 119
6.1.2 Gene Analysis 125
6.1.3 Proteomics 128
6.2 Instrumental Analysis 132
6.2.1 Optical Microscopes 132
6.2.2 Fluorescence Microscopes 134
6.2.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope 135
6.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)—Energy-Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Spectroscopy 137
6.2.5 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 139
6.2.6 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 142
6.2.7 Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-VIS) Spectroscopy 145
6.2.8 White Light Interferometer 147
6.2.9 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 149
6.2.10 Raman Spectroscopy 151
6.2.11 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 154
References 156
7 Standardization—Current and Future 163
7.1 The United States 164
7.1.1 ASTM E2196 165
7.1.2 ASTM E2562 166
7.1.3 ASTM E2647 167
7.1.4 ASTM E2871 169
7.1.5 ASTM E2799 170
7.1.6 ASTM E3151 171
7.1.7 ASTM E3161 171
7.1.8 Characteristics of the ASTM Standard in the USA 172
7.2 European Union 173
7.2.1 European Standards (EN) 173
7.2.2 Phase 1—Basic Suspension Test 174
7.2.3 Phase 2 Part 1—Quantitative Suspension Test 174
7.2.4 Phase 3—Field Test 174
7.2.5 International Standards (ISOs) 175
7.3 Japan 176
References 177
8 Biofilm Problems and Environments 180
8.1 Marine Environments 180
8.2 Soil Environments 184
8.3 Household Environments 188
8.4 Food Processing Industries 195
8.5 Pipes and Heat Exchangers 198
8.6 Hospital and Medical Fronts 201
References 204
9 Biofilm Usefulness 208
9.1 Energy Applications 208
9.2 Environmental Applications 212
9.3 Water Treatment Applications 216
References 226
10 Biofilm Control and Thoughts for the Future 230
References 235