Herbal Medicine in India (eBook)

Indigenous Knowledge, Practice, Innovation and its Value 3
Preface 6
Acknowledgements 8
Contents 9
About the Editors 13
Part I: Traditional Medicinal Systems and Herbal Medicine in India 15
1: Globalisation of Ayurveda: Importance of Scientific Evidence Base 16
1.1 Introduction 16
1.2 Ayurveda and its Popularity 16
1.3 Problems Associated with Ayurveda 17
1.4 Scientific Evidence Base of Ayurveda: The Way Forward 18
1.5 Pathways to Impact and Communication Plans 18
1.6 Beneficiaries and Impacts 19
1.7 Conclusion 19
References 19
2: Siddha, an Indigenous Medical System of Peninsular India 21
2.1 History 22
2.2 Principles of Siddha 23
2.3 Tridoshas and Its Characteristics 24
2.4 The Fundamentals of Siddha Methodology 24
2.4.1 Vadham (Alchemy) 24
2.4.2 Aithiyam (medicine) 25
2.4.3 Yogam (Yoga) 25
2.4.4 Gnanam or Thathuvam (Philosophy) 26
2.5 Siddhic Process 26
2.6 Diagnosis 27
2.6.1 Nadi Vignanam (Pulse Reading) 27
2.6.2 Touch 27
2.6.3 Colour 27
2.6.4 Tongue 28
2.6.5 Voice 28
2.6.6 The Eyes 28
2.6.7 Faeces 28
2.6.8 Urine Analysis (Moothiram) 28
2.7 Siddha Preparations 28
2.7.1 Bhasma (Calcined Metals and Mineral Formations) 28
2.7.2 Churna (Powders) 29
2.7.3 Kashaya (Decoctions) 29
2.7.4 Lehya or Lehyam (Jam) 29
2.7.5 Ghrita (Ghee) 30
2.7.6 Taila (Oil) 30
2.8 Herbs in Traditional Medical System of India 30
2.9 Limitations of Siddha Medicine 32
References 32
3: Rejuvenation of Interests in Herbal Remedies as Elixir of Life 34
3.1 A General Résumé 35
3.2 Ethnobotany, Traditional and Modern Medicines 35
3.2.1 Ethnobotany 35
3.2.1.1 Ethnomedicine 36
3.2.1.2 A Glimpse of Ethnobotanical Studies in India 36
3.2.2 Health and Traditional Medicines 37
3.2.2.1 Traditional Medicines in India 38
3.2.2.2 Database of Indian Traditional Medicines 38
3.2.3 Modern Medicines 39
3.3 Enzyme- Inhibition Therapy, A Newly Emerging Concept Based on Traditional Food Plants 41
3.3.1 ?-Amylase and ?-Glucosidase 41
3.3.2 ?-Glucuronidases 41
3.3.3 Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) 41
3.3.4 Acetylcholinesterase 42
3.4 Immunomodulatory Role of Traditional Plant Medicines 42
3.5 Traditional Herbal Remedies for Prevention and Treatment of Viral Diseases 43
3.6 Cytoprotective Role of Traditional Plant Medicines in Oxidative Stress and Redox Signaling 44
3.7 Summing Up 45
References 45
4: An Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plants Used by Ethnic People of Thoubal and Kakching District, Manipur, India 51
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Methodology 52
4.2.1 Study Location and Duration 52
4.2.2 Investigating Methods 52
4.3 Results and Discussion 52
4.4 Conclusion 59
References 59
5: Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants Against Alzheimer’s Disease 60
5.1 Introduction 61
5.2 Etiology and Pathogenesis 63
5.2.1 ?- Amyloid Plaques 63
5.2.2 Neurofibrillary Tangles 63
5.2.3 Loss of Cholinergic Neurons 63
5.3 Ayurvedic Perspective of AD 64
5.4 Clinical Examination and Diagnosis 65
5.5 Management 66
5.5.1 Brain Tonics (Medhya Rasayana) 66
5.6 Scientific Basis 68
5.6.1 Nootropic Plants 68
5.6.1.1 Pharmacological Studies on Single Herbs 68
Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) 68
Centella asiatica (Mandookparni) 68
Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois (Shankhpushpi) 68
Eugenia caryophyllus spl. (Laung) 69
Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. (Yastimadhu) 69
Lawsonia intermis Linn. (Mehndi) 69
Nardostachys jatamansi DC. (Jatamansi) 69
Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) 69
Tinospora cordifolia F.Vill (Guduchi) 69
Withania somnifera Dunal (Ashwagandha) 69
5.6.1.2 Clinical Studies of Nootropic Plants 70
Bacopa monniera Linn. (Brahmi) 70
Centella asiatica Linn. (Mandookparni) 70
5.7 Pharmacological and Clinical Studies on Polyherbal Formulation with Nootropic Activity 70
5.7.1 Indian Noni 70
5.7.2 Memorin (Phytopharma) 70
5.7.3 Mentat (Himalaya Healthcare) 70
5.7.4 Shankhpushpi Syrup (Baidyanath) 71
5.7.5 Trasina (Dey’s Pharmaceuticals) 71
5.7.6 Saraswatarishta (Baidyanath) 71
5.7.7 Vidyarthi Amrit (Maharishi Ayurveda) 71
5.7.8 Dimagh Pushtak Rasayan (Baidyanath) 72
5.7.9 Geriforte (Himalaya) 72
5.8 Nootropic Mineral Preparations 72
5.8.1 Siddh Makardhwaja (Mercury) 72
5.8.2 Swarna Bhasma (Gold) 72
5.9 Summary and Conclusion 73
References 73
6: Integrating Indigenous Systems of Medicines in the Healthcare System in India: Need and Way Forward 77
6.1 Introduction 78
6.2 Medical Systems in India 79
6.3 Existing Status: Some Observations 79
6.4 Status of AYUSH as Independent Medical Systems: Ground Reality 80
6.4.1 Historical 80
6.4.1.1 Towards Utilization of Indigenous Medical Systems. Committee Recommendations, Policy Changes, Plans 80
6.4.2 Government Policies 81
6.4.3 Education and Training: Not Optimum 81
6.4.4 Research and Development: Lack of Evidence 81
6.4.5 Western (Allopathy) Medicine and AYUSH: Existence in Silos 82
6.4.6 Language as a Barrier 82
6.4.7 Practice 82
6.4.8 Administrative and Court Orders 82
6.4.9 Quality Issues 83
6.4.9.1 Practitioners 83
6.4.9.2 Quality Issues in Medicinal Products 83
6.4.9.3 Herbal Products 84
6.5 Integration of AYUSH with Allopathy (Modern Medicine) in India 84
6.5.1 Reasons for Integrating Allopathy and AYUSH Systems 85
6.5.1.1 Improve Access to Health Care 85
6.5.1.2 Take Care of Public Healthcare Needs in India 85
6.5.1.3 Pluralistic Medicine: Offer True Choices to Patients 85
6.5.1.4 Promote Assimilation of Different Medical Systems 86
6.5.1.5 Affordability 86
6.5.1.6 Economic Development 86
6.5.1.7 Promote Quality Research 86
6.5.1.8 Widen Global Outreach 87
6.5.1.9 Enrichment of Knowledge 87
6.5.1.10 Increased Acceptance by Practitioners of Allopathy Medicine 87
6.5.1.11 Holistic Healthcare 87
6.6 Efforts to Integrate AYUSH with Allopathy Medicine in India 87
6.6.1 The National Health Policy 1983 (Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 1983)
6.6.2 National Health Policy 2002 (Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 2002)
6.6.3 National Rural Health Mission 2006–2012 (Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 2012)
6.6.4 National Health Policy 2017 (Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 2017)
6.6.4.1 Mainstreaming the Potential of AYUSH 89
6.6.5 National Policy on Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy-2002 (Department of AYUSH 2002) 89
6.6.6 The 11th Plan (2007–2012) 89
6.6.7 The 12th Five-Year Plan 89
6.6.7.1 Research 90
6.6.7.2 Human Resource Development 90
6.6.7.3 On Practice and Promotion of AYUSH 90
6.7 Way Forward 90
6.7.1 Top Down 91
6.7.2 Bottom Up Approach 92
6.7.2.1 Short-Term Educational Intervention 92
6.7.3 Starting Departments of Integrative Medicine 92
6.8 Conclusion 93
References 93
7: Home Herbal Garden for Promotion of Herbal Health Care System in Tripura 96
7.1 Background 96
7.2 Concept of Home Herbal Garden 97
7.3 Traditional Healing Practices in Tripura 97
7.4 Species Composition in Home Herbal Garden 97
7.4.1 Initiatives and Preferences of Traditional Healers 97
7.4.2 Participatory Appraisal on Common Diseases and Preferred Plants 98
7.4.2.1 Aspects of Healing Practices 98
7.4.2.2 Issue of Traditional Healers 98
7.5 Conclusion 106
References 107
8: Cultivation of Medicinal Plants: Special Reference to Important Medicinal Plants of India 108
8.1 Introduction 109
8.2 Important Medicinal Plants of India 109
8.2.1 Yam 109
8.2.2 Sarpagandha 110
8.2.3 Opium 110
8.2.4 Periwinkle 111
8.2.5 Aloe/Gheekumari 111
8.2.6 Guggal 111
8.2.7 Belladona 112
8.2.8 Nux Vomica 112
8.2.9 Medicinal Solanum 112
8.2.10 Aonla/Amla 113
8.2.11 Senna 113
8.2.12 Isubgol 113
8.2.13 Stevia 114
8.2.14 Coleus 114
8.2.15 Acorus 114
8.2.16 Ocimum (Holy Basil/Tulsi) 115
8.3 Conclusion 120
References 120
Part II: Plants for Better Future (Therapeutic & Pharmaceutical Consideration)
9: Preclinical and Clinical Trials of Indian Medicinal Plants in Disease Control 124
9.1 Introduction 125
9.2 Biological Background of Herbs 125
9.3 Herbs Used in Disease Control 125
9.3.1 CNS Active Herbs 125
9.3.1.1 Nootropics 125
9.3.1.2 Psychoactives 126
9.3.1.3 Agents Attenuating Dependence 126
9.3.1.4 Anticonvulsants 126
9.3.1.5 Sedatives 127
9.3.1.6 Analgesics 127
9.3.1.7 Anti-inflammatory Agents 127
9.3.1.8 Antipyretics 127
9.3.1.9 Neurotransmitter Modulation 128
9.3.2 Plants Modulating Autonomic and Autacoids Activity 128
9.3.3 CVS Active Herbs 128
9.3.3.1 Anticoagulant 128
9.3.3.2 Hypolipidaemic 128
9.3.3.3 Anti-Hypertensives 129
9.3.3.4 ACE (Angiotensin Converting Enzyme) Inhibitors 129
9.3.3.5 Cardio Protectives 129
9.3.3.6 Positive Ionotropics 129
9.3.4 Herbs Acting on Respiratory System 129
9.3.5 Anti-allergic Herbs 130
9.3.6 Hypoglycemic Herbs 130
9.3.7 Anti- and Pro-Fertility Herbs 130
9.3.8 Herbs Promoting Skin and Bone Healing 131
9.3.9 Herbs Acting on Genito-Urinary System 131
9.3.10 Gastro-Intestinal Pro- and Anti-Kinetic Herbs 131
9.3.11 Cytoprotective Herbs 131
9.3.11.1 Ulcero- Protectives 131
Gastric and Duodenal Ulcers 131
Ulcerative Colitis 132
9.3.11.2 Hepato-Protectives 132
9.3.11.3 Pancreato-Protectives 132
9.3.11.4 Myelo-Protectives 132
9.3.11.5 Radio-Protectives 132
9.3.11.6 Oculo-Protectives 132
9.3.11.7 Membrane Stabilizers 132
9.3.12 Herbs Protecting Against Oxidative Stress 132
9.3.12.1 UV Light-Induced 132
9.3.12.2 Cumene Hydroperoxide Induced 133
9.3.12.3 Iron Induced 133
9.3.13 Chemotherapeutic Herbal Products 133
9.3.13.1 Antimicrobial Agents 133
9.3.13.2 Antifungal Agents 133
9.3.13.3 Antiviral Agents 133
9.3.13.4 Antiprotozoal Agents 134
Antimalarial 134
Antileishmanial 134
Antitrypanosomial 134
9.3.13.5 Anthelmintic Agents 134
Antinematodes 134
Antitrematode (Fluke) 134
9.3.14 Antimutagenic Herbs 134
9.3.15 Anticancer Herbs 135
9.3.16 Immune Active Herbs 135
9.3.17 Adaptogens 135
9.4 Clinical Tests of Herbs 139
9.5 Research of Medicinal Herbs 139
9.6 Role of WHO in Herbal Medicine 140
9.7 Government Policies 140
9.8 Conclusion 141
References 143
10: Plant Latex: A Rich Source of Haemostatic Proteases 148
10.1 Introduction 148
10.2 Plant Latex and Its Physiological Role 149
10.3 Distribution of Latex Proteases 150
10.3.1 Serine Proteases 150
10.3.2 Cysteine Protease 151
10.3.3 Aspartic Proteases (EC 3.4.23) 151
10.4 Latex Proteases as Hemostatic Agents in Wound Healing 151
10.5 Summary and Path Forward 155
References 155
11: Antidiabetic Activity of Indian Medicinal Plants 159
11.1 Introduction 160
11.1.1 Diabetes and Significance 160
11.1.2 Classification of Diabetes Mellitus 160
11.1.3 Indian Medicinal Plants with Antidiabetic Potential 160
11.1.4 Phytoconstituents Present in Medicinal Plants 161
11.2 Important Medicinal Plants Explored as Anti-Diabetic 161
11.2.1 Ficus religiosa 161
11.2.1.1 Bioactive Compounds in Ficus religiosa 162
11.2.1.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 163
11.2.2 Eugenia jambolana 163
11.2.2.1 Bioactive Compounds in Eugenia jambolana 163
11.2.2.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 163
11.2.3 Momordica charantia 163
11.2.3.1 Bioactive Compounds in Momordica charantia 164
11.2.3.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 165
11.2.4 Aloe barbadensis 165
11.2.4.1 Bioactive Compounds in Aloe barbadensis 166
11.2.4.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 166
11.2.5 Brassica juncea 167
11.2.5.1 Bioactive Compounds in Brassica juncea 167
11.2.5.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 167
11.2.6 Allium cepa 167
11.2.6.1 Bioactive Compounds in Allium cepa 169
11.2.6.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 169
11.2.7 Acacia arabica 169
11.2.7.1 Bioactive Compounds in Acacia arabica 170
11.2.7.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 170
11.2.8 Azadirachta indica 171
11.2.8.1 Bioactive Compounds in Azadirachta indica 171
11.2.8.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 171
11.2.9 Tinospora cordifolia 172
11.2.9.1 Bioactive Compounds in Tinospora cordifolia 172
11.2.9.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 172
11.2.10 Allium sativum 172
11.2.10.1 Bioactive Compounds of Allium sativum 173
11.2.10.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 173
11.2.11 Ocimum sanctum 173
11.2.11.1 Bioactive Compounds in Ocimum sanctum 174
11.2.11.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity 174
11.3 Adverse Effects of Indian Medicinal Plants 175
11.3.1 Ficus religiosa 175
11.3.2 Eugenia jambolana 175
11.3.3 Momordica charantia 175
11.3.4 Aloe barbadensis 175
11.3.5 Brassica juncea 175
11.3.6 Allium cepa 176
11.3.7 Acacia arabica 176
11.3.8 Azadirachta indica 176
11.3.9 Tinospora cordifolia 176
11.3.10 Allium sativum 176
11.3.11 Ocimum sanctum 176
References 176
12: Novel Drug Delivery System in Phytochemicals: Modern Era of Ancient Science 179
12.1 Introduction 179
12.2 Novel Drug Delivery Systems 180
12.2.1 Nanoparticles 180
12.2.2 Liposomes 181
12.2.3 Ethosome 182
12.2.4 Phytosome 183
12.2.5 Nanoemulsions/Microemulsions 184
12.2.6 Microsphere 185
12.2.7 Micelles 185
12.2.8 Transferosome 186
12.2.9 Implants 186
12.2.10 Cyclodextrins 187
12.2.11 Niosomes 187
12.2.12 Transdermal Drug Delivery System (Transdermal Patches) 188
12.3 Conclusion 189
References 189
13: Plant Derived Polysaccharides as Pharmaceutical Excipients: An Overview 194
13.1 Introduction 194
13.2 Pharmaceutical Applications of Polysaccharide Hydrogels 195
13.2.1 Application of Polysaccharide Hydrogels in Tablet Formulation 196
13.2.2 Polysaccharide Hydrogels as Emulsifying and Suspending Agents 197
13.2.3 Polysaccharide Hydrogels as Sustaining Agents 198
13.2.4 Polysaccharide Hydrogels as Coating Agents 199
13.2.5 Application of Polysaccharide Hydrogels in Microencapsulation 199
13.2.6 Polysaccharide Hydrogels as Gelling Agents 199
13.2.7 Polysaccharide Hydrogels for Colon Targeting of Drugs 200
13.2.8 Applications of Poly­saccharide Hydrogels in Ocular Delivery Systems 200
13.3 Applications of Polysaccharide Hydrogels in Tissue Engineering 201
13.4 Biotechnological Applications of Polysaccharide Hydrogels 202
13.4.1 Gene Fragment Separation 202
13.4.2 Chromosome Fragment Separation 202
13.4.3 Artificial Organs 202
13.4.4 Cell and Enzyme Immobilization 202
13.4.4.1 Immobilization by Entrapment 203
13.4.4.2 Immobilization by Encapsulation 203
13.5 Conclusions 204
References 204
14: Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Herbal Extract 208
14.1 Introduction 209
14.2 Phytomining 210
14.3 Role of Plant Metabolites in the Binding and Reduction of Metal Ions 212
14.3.1 Terpenoids 212
14.3.2 Flavonoids 212
14.3.3 Sugars 212
14.4 Overall Mechanism of Green Nanoparticle Synthesis 214
14.5 Bio-Reduction Mechanism 214
14.6 Factors Affecting Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Plant Extract 215
14.6.1 pH of the Reaction Mixture 215
14.6.2 Incubation Temperature 215
14.6.3 Pressure 216
14.6.4 Time 216
14.7 Conclusions 216
References 216
15: Sassurea lappa: A Scientific Review 217
15.1 Introduction 217
15.2 Phyto-Constituents of Saussurea lappa 219
15.2.1 Thin-Layer Chromatographic (TLC) Finger Printing 219
15.2.2 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometric (GC–MS) Studies 219
15.3 Acute Toxicity Evaluation 219
15.4 Literature Survey 220
15.4.1 Medicinal Uses 220
15.4.2 Anti-Convulsant Activity 221
15.4.3 Anti-Viral Activity 221
15.4.4 Gastro-Protective Activity 221
15.4.5 Anti-Hepatotoxic Activity 221
15.4.6 Anti-Microbial Activity 222
15.4.7 Anti-Ulcer Effects 222
15.4.8 Treatment of Ischemic Heart Diseases (IHD) 222
15.4.9 Anti-Oxidant Activity 222
15.4.10 Side Effects 222
References 223
16: Agarwood: Medicinal Side of the Fragrant Plant 224
16.1 Agarwood: An Interesting Profile of a Tree 224
16.2 Phytoconstituent Profile of Aquilaria Species 226
16.3 Medicinal Properties of Agarwood: Traditional Therapy and Beliefs 226
16.4 Pharmacological Properties of Agarwood 226
16.4.1 Antidiabetic Activity 229
16.4.2 Antioxidant Activity 229
16.4.3 Hepatoprotective Activity 230
16.4.4 Anticancer and Antitumor Activity 230
16.4.5 Analgesics, Anti-arthritic, and Anti-inflammatory Activities 231
16.4.6 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities 231
16.4.7 Laxative Effects 231
16.4.8 Antihistaminic Activities 232
16.4.9 Other Effects 232
16.5 Toxicity and Safety Measurement of Aquilaria Species 232
16.6 Conclusion 234
References 234
17: Processing and Potential Health Benefits of Betel Leaf (Piper betle L.) 238
17.1 Introduction 239
17.1.1 Betel Leaf: A Valuable Herbal Plant 239
17.1.2 History and Cultivation of Betel Leaf 239
17.1.3 Botanical Characteristics 240
17.1.4 Economic Status 240
17.2 Composition of Betel Leaf 241
17.2.1 Nutrients 241
17.2.2 Extraction of Essential Oil 241
17.2.3 Phenolic Compounds 242
17.3 Medicinal Uses of the Herbal Plant 242
17.4 Adverse and Toxic Effects 243
17.5 Pharmacological Activities 243
17.5.1 Antioxidant Activity 244
17.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity 244
17.5.3 Anticancer Activity 244
17.5.4 Anti-diabetic Activity 245
17.5.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity 245
17.6 Preservation Techniques 245
17.7 The Scope of Future Research 246
17.8 Conclusion 246
References 246
Part III: Phytochemicals & Drug Discovery
18: Spatio-Temporal Imaging and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Analysis: New Avenues in Herbal Drug Discovery and Plant Metabolomics 249
18.1 Introduction 249
18.2 Hyphenated Mass Spectrometry Techniques and Their Applications 250
18.2.1 LC-MS Analysis 250
18.2.2 GC-MS Analysis 252
18.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 254
18.3.1 MRI Imaging in Plant Metabolomics 255
18.3.1.1 Imaging of Lipids and Other Metabolites 255
18.3.1.2 Other Applications of MRI Imaging 256
18.4 Synchrotron Radiation Techniques 257
18.4.1 Challenges in Application of SR Techniques in Plant Sciences 258
18.5 Conclusions 258
References 258
19: Drugs from Our Ancestors: Tradition to Innovation 262
19.1 Ancestors’ Medicine 262
19.1.1 Evidence Base of Ancient Knowledge 263
19.2 Ethnopharmacology in Health and Wellness 265
19.3 Lead Development: Innovation in Traditional Medicine 266
19.4 Synergy in Ethnomedicine 270
19.5 Polypharmacology: A Paradigm Shift in Traditional Medicine Research 276
References 278
20: Phytochemical Analysis of Herbal Teas and Their Potential Health, and Food Safety Benefits: A Review 280
20.1 Introduction 281
20.2 Free Radicals and Antioxidants in Biological Systems 281
20.3 Analysis of Phenolic Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Herbal Tea 281
20.3.1 The Effect of Extraction Solvents on Phenolic Compounds 281
20.3.2 Quantification Methods for Phenolic Content of Herbal Teas 282
20.3.2.1 Liquid chromatography 282
20.3.2.2 Gas Chromatography 283
20.3.2.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 283
20.3.3 Types of Antioxidants in True Tea 283
20.3.3.1 Phenolic and Polyphenolic Antioxidants 283
20.3.3.2 Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) Mechanism of Action 285
20.3.4 Specific Antioxidants that Characterise Non-herbal Teas (from Camellia sinensis) 285
20.3.4.1 Catechin Antioxidants 285
20.3.4.2 Theaflavin Antioxidants 285
20.3.4.3 Tannin Antioxidants 285
20.3.4.4 Green Tea 286
20.3.4.5 White Tea 286
20.3.5 Specific Antioxidants that Characterise Herbal Teas 287
20.3.5.1 Rooibos Tea 287
20.3.5.2 Antioxidants (Phenolic Diterpenes) in Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) 287
20.3.6 The Structure-Antioxidant Activity Relationship of Phenolic Compounds 290
20.3.6.1 Flavonoids 290
The Influence of the C-Ring on the Antioxidant Activity of Flavonoids 290
The Influence of the B-Ring on the Antioxidant Activity of Flavonoids 290
The Influence of Hydroxyl Groups on the Antioxidant Activity of Flavonoids 290
The Role of O-Methylation on the Antioxidant Activity of Flavonoids 291
20.3.6.2 Phenolic Acids 291
The Influence of Hydroxybenzoic Acid on Antioxidant Activity 291
The Influence of Hydroxycinnamic Acid on Antioxidant Activity 292
20.4 Herbal Tea Metabolites and Associated Health Benefits 292
20.4.1 Phenolic Compounds on the Gastrointestinal and Cardiovascular Systems 292
20.4.2 Phenolic Compounds as Anti-diabetic Agents 293
20.4.3 Phenolic Compounds in Cancer Prevention and Treatment 293
20.4.4 Phenolic Compounds on Skin Health and Ageing Process 294
20.5 Herbal Tea Metabolites and Food Science 295
20.5.1 Phenolic Compounds as Food Additives 295
20.5.2 Phenolic Compounds as Food Antimicrobials 295
20.5.3 Phenolic Compounds in Food-Quality Applications 296
20.6 Conclusions 296
References 297
21: Extraction, Isolation, and Quantitative Determination of Flavonoids by HPLC 301
21.1 Introduction 301
21.2 Chemistry of Flavonoids 304
21.3 Natural Sources of Flavonoids 304
21.4 Flavonoid-Rich Foods 307
21.4.1 Amount Present in Foods 307
21.4.2 Dietary Intake 307
21.5 Flavonoids and Their Biological Activities 308
21.5.1 Antioxidant Activity 308
21.5.2 Hepatoprotective Activity 308
21.5.3 Antibacterial Activity 309
21.5.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity 309
21.5.5 Anticancer Activity 309
21.5.6 Antiviral Activity 310
21.6 Extraction of Flavonoids 311
21.7 Isolation or Separation of Flavonoids 312
21.7.1 Preparative Methods 312
21.7.1.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 313
21.7.1.2 Medium-Pressure Liquid Chromatography 313
21.7.1.3 Centrifugal Partition Chromatography 314
21.8 Quantification of Flavonoids 314
21.8.1 Column Liquid Chromatography 314
21.8.1.1 Detectors Used in LC 316
UV Detection 316
Fluorescence Detection 322
Electrochemical Detection 322
LC?MS 323
21.8.2 Other Methods 324
21.8.2.1 Gas Chromatography 324
21.8.2.2 Capillary Electrophoresis 326
21.8.2.3 Thin-Layer Chromatography 326
References 328
22: HPTLC Fingerprint in Herbal Drug Formulations 335
22.1 Introduction 336
22.2 Common Methodology for HPTLC Analysis 337
22.2.1 Basic Steps 337
22.2.1.1 Selection of the Stationary Phase 337
22.2.1.2 Activation of Pre-coated Plates 338
22.2.1.3 Mobile-Phase Selection and Optimisation 338
22.2.1.4 Sample Preparation and Application 339
22.2.1.5 Preconditioning Chamber Saturation 339
22.2.1.6 Chromatogram Development (Separation) 339
22.2.1.7 Derivatisation 339
22.2.1.8 Detection 339
22.2.1.9 Quantification 340
22.2.2 HPTLC Method Validation for Pharmaceutical/Herbal Product Analysis 341
22.3 HPTLC Fingerprinting Applications in Herbal Drug Formulations 342
22.3.1 Determination and Quantification of Gymnemagenin and ?-Sitosterol in Marketed Herbal Formulation by Validated Normal-Phase HPTLC Method 342
22.3.2 Estimation of Hesperidin by HPTLC in Different Varieties of Citrus Peels Quantitatively 343
22.3.3 Quantitative Analysis of 8-Gingerol in Zingiber officinale Extract and Ginger-Containing Dietary Supplements, Teas and Commercial Creams Using HPTLC Densitometric Method (Fig. 22.5) 344
22.3.4 Simultaneous Densitometric Analysis of Glycyrrhetic Acid and Solasodine in Herbal Drug Formulation Using HPTLC Techniques (Fig. 22.13) 347
22.3.5 Quantification of Markers of Dhatrinisha Churna Using HPTLC Method Development and Validation 348
22.3.6 Determination of Caffeine in Stimulant Herbal Products and Power Drinks Using HPTLC Validation Method 348
22.3.7 Estimation of Curcumin Content in Turmeric Powder Using HPTLC Validation Method 350
22.3.8 Standardisation of Sulaharan Yoga: An Ayurvedic Tablet Formulation Using HPTLC Fingerprinting Method 350
22.3.9 Selected HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) and Vitex peduncularis Wall. 352
22.3.9.1 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) 352
22.3.9.2 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of Vitex peduncularis Wall. 352
22.3.9.3 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of Ilex khasiana 352
References 359
23: Drug Discovery and Herbal Drug Development: A Special Focus on the Anti-diarrheal Plants of Bangladesh 361
23.1 Introduction 361
23.2 Drug Discovery Potential 396
23.3 Conclusion 396
References 397
24: Diversity of Antimutagenic Phytocompounds from Indian Medicinal Plants 399
24.1 Introduction 399
24.2 Mutagens 400
24.3 Antimutagens and Their Mechanisms 401
24.4 Antimutagenicity Screening Assays 402
24.5 Antimutagenic Phytocompounds 403
24.5.1 Curcumin 403
24.5.2 Punicalagin and Ellagic Acid 405
24.5.3 Quercetin and Rutin 405
24.6 Conclusion 407
References 407
25: Health Benefits of Octacosanol and Other Long-Chain Aliphatic Fatty Alcohols from Plants 411
25.1 Introduction 411
25.2 Health Benefits and Functional Properties 412
25.2.1 Lipid-Lowering Effect 412
25.2.2 Other Possible Benefits 415
25.2.2.1 Reduction of Platelet Aggregation 415
25.2.2.2 Analgesic and Anti-inflammatory Activity 416
25.2.2.3 Anticardiovascular and Antiangiogenic Activity 416
25.2.2.4 Hepatoprotective Activity 416
25.2.2.5 Neurological Activity 416
25.2.2.6 Protective Effects on Parkinsonism 417
25.2.2.7 Antidiabetic Activity 417
25.2.2.8 Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activity 417
25.2.3 Anti-stress Activity 418
25.2.4 Ergogenic Properties 418
25.2.5 Body Weight 418
25.3 Toxicity Studies 418
25.4 Metabolism of Octacosanol 419
25.5 Conclusion 419
References 420
26: Folk Medicine of North East India and Drug Discovery: Way to Look Forward 424
26.1 North East India and Its Biodiversity 424
26.2 North East Indian Traditional Knowledge 425
26.3 Traditional Medicinal Knowledge, Medicinal Plants of India, and Drug Discovery 425
26.3.1 Herbal Medicine 425
26.3.2 Medicinal Plants of India and Drug Discovery 426
26.4 Approach Towards the New Drug Discovery in North East India 427
26.4.1 Collection of Folk Medicinal Information and Database Preparation 427
26.4.2 The Journey of Medicine from Forest to Market: A Systemic Approach 428
26.4.3 Future Approach and Goal to Achieve 429
26.5 Conclusion 429
References 429
Part IV: Herbal Nutraceuticals and Today’s Life 431
27: Wild Edible Fruits of Northeast India: Medicinal Values and Traditional Practices 432
27.1 Introduction 433
27.2 Indigenous Knowledge and Practices on Wild Fruits of Northeast India 434
27.3 Wild Fruits and Their Medicinal Use in Northeast India 435
27.3.1 Aegle marmelos Correa 436
27.3.2 Annona squamosa L. 436
27.3.3 Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. 437
27.3.4 Averrhoa carambola L. 437
27.3.5 Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. 437
27.3.6 Citrus indica Yu. Tanaka 438
27.3.7 Citrus grandis L. 438
27.3.8 Citrus macroptera Montrouz. 438
27.3.9 Citrus medica L. 438
27.3.10 Dillenia indica L. 438
27.3.11 Eleagnus spp. (E. caudate Schlidt Syn. E. latifolia L., E. pyriformis, E. umbellata Thunb., E. parviflora) 439
27.3.12 Euphoria longan (Lour) (Syn.: Dimocarpus longan Lour, Nephelium longana Camb.) 439
27.3.13 Ficus glomerata Roxb. (Syn. F. racemosa) 439
27.3.14 Ficus hispida L. 439
27.3.15 Ficus semicordata (Syn. F. cunia) 440
27.3.16 Garcinia cowa Roxb. 440
27.3.17 Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. 440
27.3.18 Myrica esculenta 441
27.3.19 Passiflora edulis Sims P. foetida L.
27.3.20 Phyllanthus acidus L. Roxb. 441
27.3.21 Phyllanthus emblica L. (Syn. Emblica officinalis L.) 441
27.3.22 Prunus domestica L. (Syn. P. communis) 441
27.3.23 Prunus persica L. 441
27.3.24 Rhus semialata Murray (Syn. R. chinensis Miller) 442
27.3.25 Rubus ellipticus Smith 442
27.3.26 Solanum indicum 442
27.3.27 Solanum nigrum L. 442
27.3.28 Spondias pinnata (Syn. S. mangifera Willd.) 442
27.3.29 Syzygium cumini L. Skeels (Syn. Eugenia jambolana Lam.) 443
27.3.30 Tamarindus indica L. 443
27.3.31 Terminalia chebula Retz. 443
27.3.32 Ziziphus mairitiana Lam. (Syn. Z. jujube Mill.) 443
27.4 Conclusion 443
References 444
28: Fruits of Indian Subcontinent and Their Health Benefits 446
28.1 Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) 447
28.1.1 Medicinal Uses 447
28.2 Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) 448
28.2.1 Antioxidants in Pomegranate 449
28.2.2 Medicinal Applications 450
28.3 Jamun (Syzygium cumini), the Indian Blackberry 452
28.3.1 Antioxidants in Jamun 452
28.3.2 Medicinal Value 453
28.3.3 Processing of Jamun Fruit 453
28.4 Bilva, Sriphal, or Bel (Aegle marmelos) 454
28.4.1 Chemical Composition 454
28.4.2 Medicinal Properties 455
28.5 Custard Apple or Sitaphal (Annona squamosa) 456
28.5.1 Chemical Composition 456
28.5.2 Medicinal Properties 457
28.6 Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) 458
28.6.1 Chemical Composition 458
28.6.2 Medicinal Properties 459
28.7 Ber or Indian Plum (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam) 460
28.7.1 Chemical Composition 461
28.7.2 Medicinal Properties 461
28.8 Lasura or Assyrian Plum (Cordia myxa) 462
28.8.1 Chemical Composition 462
28.8.2 Medicinal Properties 463
28.9 Phalsa or Falsa (Grewia asiatica L.) 464
28.9.1 Chemical Composition 464
28.9.2 Medicinal Benefits 465
28.10 Future Research Needs 466
References 466
29: Emerging Roles of Nutraceuticals from Selected Fermented Foods in Lifestyle-Related Disease Prevention 474
29.1 Introduction 474
29.2 Nutraceuticals and Fermented Foods 475
29.2.1 Role of Nutraceuticals from Fermented Foods in Cancer Prevention 475
29.2.2 Role of Nutraceuticals from Fermented Food for Metabolic Syndrome Prevention 476
29.2.3 Role of Nutraceuticals from Fermented Foods in Neurodegeneration and Anti-Aging 478
29.2.4 Role of Nutraceuticals from Fermented Food in Cardiovascular Disease Prevention 479
29.2.5 Role of Nutraceuticals from Fermented Food in Ulcerative Colitis Disease Prevention 479
29.3 Conclusion 481
References 481
30: Food Grains of India: A Brief Note on Their Therapeutic Potential 484
30.1 Introduction 484
30.2 Food Grains in India 485
30.2.1 Wheat 485
30.2.2 Rice 485
30.2.3 Millets 485
30.3 Bioactive Molecules in Food Grains 485
30.3.1 Wheat 485
30.3.2 Rice 486
30.3.3 Millets 486
30.4 Therapeutic Potential 486
30.4.1 Wheat 489
30.4.1.1 Inflammatory Potential 489
30.4.1.2 Anticancer Activity 489
30.4.1.3 Immunomodulatory Effect 490
30.4.1.4 Antidiabetic Potential 490
30.4.1.5 Cardiovascular Effect 490
30.4.1.6 Effect on GUT Health 490
30.4.2 Rice 491
30.4.3 Millets 492
30.4.3.1 Pearl Millet (Bajra) 493
30.4.3.2 Sorghum (Jowar) 493
30.4.3.3 Finger Millet (Ragi) 494
30.4.3.4 Proso/Common Millet (Barri) 495
30.4.3.5 Barnyard Millet (Jhangora) 495
30.4.3.6 Foxtail Millet (Kangni) 496
30.4.3.7 Kodo Millet (Kodra) 497
30.4.3.8 Little Millet (Moraiyo) 497
30.5 Scope and Things to Remember 498
References 499
31: Medicinal Aspect of Mushrooms: A View Point 504
31.1 Introduction 504
31.2 Cultivation of Mushrooms 505
31.2.1 Mushroom Cultivation in India 505
31.2.2 Popularly Cultivated Mushrooms in India 505
31.2.3 Medicinal Mushroom Cultivation in India 506
31.3 Medicinal Significance Mushrooms 506
31.3.1 Antioxidant Activity 507
31.3.2 Anticancer Potential 507
31.3.3 Management of Metabolic Disorders 507
31.3.3.1 In Obesity and Hyperlipidemia 507
31.3.3.2 In Hypercholesterolemia 508
31.3.3.3 In Diabetes 508
31.3.4 As Antihypertensive 508
31.3.5 In Neurodegenerative Disease 509
31.3.6 Other Medicinal Uses 509
31.4 Conclusion 510
References 518
32: Study on Nutraceuticals of a Certain Ethnomedicinal Plants of Arunachal Pradesh, India 528
32.1 Introduction 528
32.2 Study Area 529
32.3 Discussion 530
32.4 Conclusion 537
References 538
Part V: Herbal Medicine—Validation, Quality Control & IPR Issues
33: Herb-Drug Interactions: Focus on Adverse Drug Reactions and Pharmacovigilance of Herbal Medicines 541
33.1 Introduction 542
33.2 Adverse Drug Reactions 543
33.3 Pharmacovigilance and Herbal Medicine 544
33.3.1 Pharmacovigilance Systems and Safety Monitoring of Herbal Medicines 544
33.3.2 Sources of Adverse Drug Reports of Herbal Medicine 544
33.3.3 Specific Area for Safety Monitoring of Herbal Products 545
33.3.4 Reporting of Herbal Medicine-Suspected Adverse Reactions 545
33.3.5 Evaluation of Case Report and Data Management of Adverse Reaction of Herbal Medicine 546
33.4 Mechanism of HDIs 546
33.4.1 Pharmacokinetic and HDI 546
33.4.1.1 Phase I Metabolising Enzymes and HDI 546
33.4.1.2 Phase II Drug-Metabolising Enzymes and HDI 548
33.4.1.3 Transporter and HDI 548
33.4.2 Pharmacodynamic and HDI 550
33.5 Monitoring the Safety of Herbal Medicines and Its Challenges 552
33.5.1 Other Practical Key Issues of Herbal Medicines 552
33.6 Clinical Data on Herb-Drug Interactions 552
References 561
34: Scientific Validation of Herbal Medicine 566
34.1 Introduction 566
34.2 European Union Guidelines (Anonymous 2004) 567
34.3 US FDA Botanical Guidelines (Food and Drug Administration 2016) 567
34.4 Indian Phytopharmaceutical Guidelines for Herbal Medicine 568
34.5 Issues in Scientific Validation of Herbal Medicine 570
34.6 Conclusion 571
References 571
35: Scientific Validation of Aristas 573
35.1 Introduction 573
35.2 Methods 574
35.2.1 Evaluation of Pre- and Post-fermented Aqueous Decoction of Saraca asoca by High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (Aeri and Mishra 2015) 574
35.2.2 Standardization Based on Specific Markers 575
35.2.2.1 A Comparative Study of Prepared and Marketed Asokarista with Respect to Physicochemical Parameters and Phytochemical Markers (Mishra and Aeri 2015) 575
35.2.3 Quantitation of Lyoniside and Lyoniresinol 576
35.2.4 Modern Methods of Extraction to Enhance the Yield of Bioactive Marker 576
35.2.4.1 Optimization of Microwave-Assisted Extraction Conditions for Preparing Lignan-Rich Extract from Saraca asoca Bark Using Box–Behnken Design (Mishra and Aeri 2016c) 577
35.3 Application of Modern Methods: Biotechnological Aspect 578
35.3.1 Fermentation Process of Traditional Asokarista Using Wickerhamomyces anomala and Its Optimization Using Three-Factor, Three-Level Box–Behnken Design (Mishra and Aeri 2016a) 578
35.3.2 Biotechnological Changes Observed and Looking for New Pharmacophores 579
35.3.3 Biotransformation of Lignan Glycoside to Its Aglycone by Woodfordia fruticosa Flowers: Quantification of Compounds Using a Validated HPTLC Method (Mishra and Aeri 2016b) 579
35.4 Conclusion 580
References 580
36: Challenges and Opportunities in Standardization of Homeopathic Drugs and Dilutions 582
36.1 Introduction 582
36.2 Homeopathic Drug Standardization 583
36.3 Biological Standardization of Homeopathic Medicines 585
36.4 Obstacles in the Quality Control and Standardization of Homeopathic Preparations 587
36.4.1 Standardization of Homeopathic Dilutions 587
36.4.2 Other Complications Associated with Homeopathic Drug Standardization 587
36.5 Conclusion 588
References 589
37: Translation of Traditional Knowledge from Lab to Layman from Herbal Sources 590
37.1 Introduction 591
37.2 Standardization 591
37.2.1 Method of Standardization 592
37.2.2 Crude Drug Standardization 592
37.2.3 Pharmacognostic Drug Analysis (Dept. of AYUSH 2016) 592
37.2.4 Compound Drug Standardization 592
37.2.5 Drug Standardization Needs and Challenges 593
37.3 Huge Cry for Metallic Drugs: Safety and Efficacy 594
37.4 Genotoxicity 594
37.5 Preclinical Trial 594
37.6 Good Clinical Practice Guidelines for ASU Medicines (Anonyms 2013) 595
37.7 Regulatory Laws in India for Herbal Drugs 595
37.7.1 Indian Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 (for Herbal Drug Regulation) 595
37.7.2 Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 595
37.7.3 Biodiversity Act, 2002 596
37.8 Manufacture of Siddha Drugs 596
37.8.1 Manufacture on More than One Set of Premises 596
37.9 Indian Drugs and Cosmetics Act: Spurious Drugs 596
37.10 Sale of Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani Drugs 596
37.11 Administrative Agencies Regarding the Regulation of Herbal Drugs 597
37.12 Labeling Provisions (Rule-161) of Herbal Drugs 597
37.13 Mass Production 597
37.14 Import of Herbal Drugs 598
37.15 Export 598
37.16 On the Platter 598
References 598
38: Role of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) in Preservation and Protection of Indigenous Medicinal Knowledge of India 600
38.1 Introduction 600
38.1.1 Importance of Traditional Knowledge in Medicine 601
38.1.2 Challenges Involved in Protecting Knowledge of Traditional Medicine 601
38.1.3 The Gaps Between Traditional Medicine Areas and Existing Modern Patent Law 602
38.2 India and Traditional Knowledge 602
38.2.1 Defining Biopiracy and Biopiracy of Indian Traditional Knowledge 602
38.2.1.1 Neem 603
38.2.1.2 Turmeric 603
38.2.1.3 Basmati Rice 603
38.2.1.4 Rice Biopiracy 603
38.2.1.5 Pharmaceuticals 604
38.3 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) 604
38.3.1 Traditional Knowledge Resource Classification (TKRC) 604
38.3.2 Breaking Down Barriers Between TK Holders and Patent Examiners 606
38.3.3 TKDL Database: Current Status 606
38.3.4 Content Analysis of Representative Database of TKDL 606
38.3.5 Search Types and Search Options in TKDL 607
38.3.5.1 Simple Search 607
38.3.5.2 Advanced Search 607
38.3.5.3 TKRC Search 608
38.3.5.4 IPC Search 608
38.4 Success of TKDL Against Biopiracy 608
38.4.1 TKDL Success Against MNC 609
38.5 Conclusion 609
References 611
Further Readings 611
Correction to: Preclinical and Clinical Trials of Indian Medicinal Plants in Disease Control 612
Correction to: 612