Attention Deficit Disorder and Hyperactivity

Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity from interdisciplinary perspective
Introduction:
Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a diagnostic
category used to identify individuals with clinically significant
problems of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity.
ADHD can manifest as an impairment in cognitive functions,
perceptual and motor skill functions, emotional regulation, and
social adaptation (Bragdon & Gamon, 2006). ADHD can present
as various behaviors affected by factors such as age, environment
(school, home, playground), and even motivation (doing interesting
activities versus boring, monotonous ones) (Editorial Board of the
Royal College of Psychiatrists in London, 2017). The symptoms
of ADHD tend to occur more in the school environment. They make
it very difficult for the children to conform to the requirements
of formal education. When at school children are required to pay
close attention and suppress any impulsivity and hyperactivity.
As Brock, Jimerson and Hansen (2009) have stressed school-based
intervention programs are extremely important. As they point out,
although medication-based treatments for ADHD are partially
effective, psychosocial interventions often form part of within -
school treatment plans. Experimental interventions for attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder based on cognitive or
metacognitive programs are described in the academic literature.
There has also been experimental testing of noncognitive
interventions. The most frequent type of noncognitive interaction
for individuals with ADHD involves different types of sports.
Research into the effects of sport on children with attention deficit
and hyperactivity disorder has shown improvements in both the
cognitive and affective areas. As Lullo and Van Puymbroeck (2006)
have stated sports activities can improve quality of life in children
with ADHD. Research findings have indicated improvements
in motor skills, and a higher level of physical activity can have
a positive effect on executive and cognitive functions in children
with ADHD. Experimental testing of exercise-based interventions
has investigated the duration, intensity, and physical exertion as
2
well as the degree of cognitive difficulty involved in the physical
activity. Sibley and Etnier (2003) have pointed out that any kind
of physical activity can ultimately benefit cognitive performance,
and not just in individuals with attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder.
This book is an output of VEGA grant project 1/0691/16
Experimental testing of the effect of sports activity on cognitive
and executive functioning in pupils with ADHD. It comprises five
thematically related chapters. The first four are concerned with
an interdisciplinary analysis of attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder. The aim of the first chapter in the book is to set out
the conceptual background of attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), give a theoretical definition of the term, and
highlight the differences between ADHD and other similar disorders
with which it is often confused. It also covers the identification
and diagnosis of ADHD and the various forms of treatment and
intervention. The intention is to set out the theoretical framework
underpinning the remaining parts of the book, which look specifically
at ADHD in the context of executive functioning.
The aim of the second chapter is to analyze the theoretical
contexts documenting a systematic approach to determining the
specific nature of motor skills and motor learning in children with
attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Analyzing a range
of different methodological approaches we identify the specific
nature of motor ability and how it manifests in children with ADHD.
We then give a detailed analysis of the principles and determinants
of development in all areas of motor skills in the ontogenesis
of children with ADHD, who have limited proprioreceptive and
movement planning, bilateral integration, and psychomotor
adaptation.
The third chapter is an analysis of research approaches for
identifying the effects of physical activity on the cognitive domains
of young school-age children with ADHD. The emphasis is on
analyzing differences in the direct and long-term effects of physical
activity on cognitive performance. Attention is also given to
Introduction
3
describing the effect of some specific forms of physical activity and
their potential therapeutic effects on children with ADHD.
The fourth chapter is concerned with the theoretical basis
of the research conducted as part of the VEGA project and provides
an overview of research that has consistently found deficits
in executive functioning in individuals with ADHD (Pennington
and Ozonoff, 1996; Shallice et al., 2002). Specific deficits
in the level of executive functioning are more frequently recorded
in children with ADHD than children without ADHD (Barkley, 2004;
Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone and Pennigton, 2005). Considering
ADHD to be an impairment in self-regulation (and the associated
processes of executive functioning), and agreeing with Barkley’s
theory (2014, 2012), we accept a model which explains ADHD as
an impairment in the individual’s self-regulation processes. Brown
(2008) and Shoemaker et al. (2011) have stated that ADD/ADHD
is essentially a cognitive deficit and a developmental disorder
in executive functioning. They found that alongside the typical
primary symptoms, children with ADHD also frequently exhibit
a deficit in executive functioning. This chapter provides more
detail on the concept of executive functioning.
In the final and fifth chapter of the book we analyze the findings
of experimental research on the effect sport, in this case six-ball,
has on the functioning of individuals with attention deficit and
hyperactivity disorder. The research draws on existing knowledge
on correcting the symptoms of attention deficit. The research
intervention involved a particular type of sport called six-ball. Sixball
is a new type of sport in Slovakia that has been developed and
perfected over the last 13 years. It was conceived by Juraj Skrip,
a qualified trainer and wrestler who represented Czechoslovakia
and is now principal of P.O. Hviezdoslav Primary School in Snina.
The research involved experimentally testing the effect of playing
six-ball on the executive functioning of pupils with attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder. We also tested the effect an
intensive short-term sports activity with a cognitive dimension
had on the motor skills of 9–10-year-old pupils.
Introduction
4
The results of the quasi-experiment showed that this intensive
sport has the potential to correct the deficits associated with
ADHD.
Our interdisciplinary approach to describing and analyzing
the symptoms associated with attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder has enabled us to explore and describe ADHD from
within a referential framework that embraces education science,
psychology, and sports science.
The authors

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Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity from interdisciplinary perspective
Introduction:
Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a diagnostic
category used to identify individuals with clinically significant
problems of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity.
ADHD can manifest as an impairment in cognitive functions,
perceptual and motor skill functions, emotional regulation, and
social adaptation (Bragdon & Gamon, 2006). ADHD can present
as various behaviors affected by factors such as age, environment
(school, home, playground), and even motivation (doing interesting
activities versus boring, monotonous ones) (Editorial Board of the
Royal College of Psychiatrists in London, 2017). The symptoms
of ADHD tend to occur more in the school environment. They make
it very difficult for the children to conform to the requirements
of formal education. When at school children are required to pay
close attention and suppress any impulsivity and hyperactivity.
As Brock, Jimerson and Hansen (2009) have stressed school-based
intervention programs are extremely important. As they point out,
although medication-based treatments for ADHD are partially
effective, psychosocial interventions often form part of within -
school treatment plans. Experimental interventions for attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder based on cognitive or
metacognitive programs are described in the academic literature.
There has also been experimental testing of noncognitive
interventions. The most frequent type of noncognitive interaction
for individuals with ADHD involves different types of sports.
Research into the effects of sport on children with attention deficit
and hyperactivity disorder has shown improvements in both the
cognitive and affective areas. As Lullo and Van Puymbroeck (2006)
have stated sports activities can improve quality of life in children
with ADHD. Research findings have indicated improvements
in motor skills, and a higher level of physical activity can have
a positive effect on executive and cognitive functions in children
with ADHD. Experimental testing of exercise-based interventions
has investigated the duration, intensity, and physical exertion as
2
well as the degree of cognitive difficulty involved in the physical
activity. Sibley and Etnier (2003) have pointed out that any kind
of physical activity can ultimately benefit cognitive performance,
and not just in individuals with attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder.
This book is an output of VEGA grant project 1/0691/16
Experimental testing of the effect of sports activity on cognitive
and executive functioning in pupils with ADHD. It comprises five
thematically related chapters. The first four are concerned with
an interdisciplinary analysis of attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder. The aim of the first chapter in the book is to set out
the conceptual background of attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), give a theoretical definition of the term, and
highlight the differences between ADHD and other similar disorders
with which it is often confused. It also covers the identification
and diagnosis of ADHD and the various forms of treatment and
intervention. The intention is to set out the theoretical framework
underpinning the remaining parts of the book, which look specifically
at ADHD in the context of executive functioning.
The aim of the second chapter is to analyze the theoretical
contexts documenting a systematic approach to determining the
specific nature of motor skills and motor learning in children with
attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Analyzing a range
of different methodological approaches we identify the specific
nature of motor ability and how it manifests in children with ADHD.
We then give a detailed analysis of the principles and determinants
of development in all areas of motor skills in the ontogenesis
of children with ADHD, who have limited proprioreceptive and
movement planning, bilateral integration, and psychomotor
adaptation.
The third chapter is an analysis of research approaches for
identifying the effects of physical activity on the cognitive domains
of young school-age children with ADHD. The emphasis is on
analyzing differences in the direct and long-term effects of physical
activity on cognitive performance. Attention is also given to
Introduction
3
describing the effect of some specific forms of physical activity and
their potential therapeutic effects on children with ADHD.
The fourth chapter is concerned with the theoretical basis
of the research conducted as part of the VEGA project and provides
an overview of research that has consistently found deficits
in executive functioning in individuals with ADHD (Pennington
and Ozonoff, 1996; Shallice et al., 2002). Specific deficits
in the level of executive functioning are more frequently recorded
in children with ADHD than children without ADHD (Barkley, 2004;
Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone and Pennigton, 2005). Considering
ADHD to be an impairment in self-regulation (and the associated
processes of executive functioning), and agreeing with Barkley’s
theory (2014, 2012), we accept a model which explains ADHD as
an impairment in the individual’s self-regulation processes. Brown
(2008) and Shoemaker et al. (2011) have stated that ADD/ADHD
is essentially a cognitive deficit and a developmental disorder
in executive functioning. They found that alongside the typical
primary symptoms, children with ADHD also frequently exhibit
a deficit in executive functioning. This chapter provides more
detail on the concept of executive functioning.
In the final and fifth chapter of the book we analyze the findings
of experimental research on the effect sport, in this case six-ball,
has on the functioning of individuals with attention deficit and
hyperactivity disorder. The research draws on existing knowledge
on correcting the symptoms of attention deficit. The research
intervention involved a particular type of sport called six-ball. Sixball
is a new type of sport in Slovakia that has been developed and
perfected over the last 13 years. It was conceived by Juraj Skrip,
a qualified trainer and wrestler who represented Czechoslovakia
and is now principal of P.O. Hviezdoslav Primary School in Snina.
The research involved experimentally testing the effect of playing
six-ball on the executive functioning of pupils with attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder. We also tested the effect an
intensive short-term sports activity with a cognitive dimension
had on the motor skills of 9–10-year-old pupils.
Introduction
4
The results of the quasi-experiment showed that this intensive
sport has the potential to correct the deficits associated with
ADHD.
Our interdisciplinary approach to describing and analyzing
the symptoms associated with attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder has enabled us to explore and describe ADHD from
within a referential framework that embraces education science,
psychology, and sports science.
The authors