Plant and Human Health, Volume 2 (eBook)

Dr. Khalid Rehman Hakeem (PhD) is an Associate Professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has completed his Ph.D. (Botany) from Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India in 2011. Dr. Hakeem has worked as Post Doctorate Fellow in 2012 and Fellow Researcher (Associate Prof.) from 2013-2016 at Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia. His speciality is in Plant Eco-Physiology, Molecular biology, Plant-Microbe-soil interactions, Medicinal plant research and Environmental Sciences and so far has edited and authored more than 25 books with Springer International, Academic Press (Elsevier) etc. He has also to his credit more than 110 research publications in peer reviewed international journals, including 40 book chapters in edited volumes with international publishers. Dr Hakeem is the recipient of many national and international awards and fellowships.Prof. (Dr.) Münir Öztürk (PhD) has served at the Ege University Izmir, Turkey for 50 years in different positions. He has been elected as the “Vice President of the Islamic World Academy of Sciences”; has received the fellowships from Alexander von Humboldt, Japanese Society for Promotion of Science and National Science Foundation of USA. Dr. Ozturk has served as Chairman Botany Department and Founding Director Centre for Environmental Sudies, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey, as Consultant Fellow, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia and as Distinguished Visiting Scientist, ICCBS, Karachi University, Pakistan. His fields of scientific interest are Plant Eco-Physiology; Conservation of Plant Diversity; Biosaline Agriculture and Crops; Pollution, Biomonitoring, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. He has published 40 books, 50 book chapters and 175 papers in journal with impact factor.

Dedication 5
Foreword 6
Preface 9
Contents 11
Contributors 14
About the Editors 21
Free Radicals, Diabetes, and Its Complexities 23
Introduction 23
Homeostasis 23
Oxidative Stress 25
Reactive Species 25
Free Radicals 25
The Role of ROS 27
ROS Involve in Lipid Peroxidation 28
The Source of Reactive Species 28
Oxidative Stress-Inducing Agents 30
Air Pollution 30
Dust 30
Heavy Metals 33
Temperature 33
Electromagnetic Fields 33
Alcohol 34
Herbicides 34
Pesticide 35
Fungicides 35
Cigarette Smoke 35
Industrial Foods 35
Oxidative Stress Is the Main Reason of Diseases 36
Cancer 36
Cardiovascular Disease 37
Neurological Disease 37
Pulmonary Disease 37
Rheumatoid Arthritis 37
Nephropathy 38
Ocular Disease 38
Aging 38
Defensive Systems Against Free Radicals 38
Antioxidants 39
Antioxidants with New Conversation 40
Sleeping 40
Fasting 41
Mountains’ Clean Air Have Bracing Effect 41
Lifestyle Alteration Eliminates Oxidative Stressors 42
Diabetes 43
Glucose Auto-oxidation 45
Synergism Between Oxidative Stress and Glycation 45
Preservatives 46
New Conversation 50
Molecular Oxidative Stress 50
Diabetes Complications 51
Diabetes and Climate Changes 54
Direct Effects 54
Thermal Stress 54
Spiritual Consequences 55
Indirect Effects 55
Suburbs 55
Food Quality and Food Habits 55
Reduction in Food Security and Increasing the Risk of Agricultural Production 56
Conclusion 56
References 56
Secondary Metabolites from Turkish Astragalus Species 64
Introduction 64
Phytochemistry and Biological Activity 65
Chemotaxonomy 108
Structural Summary of Cycloartanes 109
20,24-Epoxy Side Chain Compounds 109
Acyclic Side Chain Compounds 110
20,25-Epoxy Side Chain Compounds 111
Stereochemistry of Astragalus Cycloartanes 112
References 114
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash: A Magic Bullet to Attenuate the Prevailing Health Hazards 119
Introduction 119
Description of Plant 120
Types 120
Common Names 121
Morphology 121
Habit 121
Leaves 121
Flowers 121
Geographical Distribution 122
Essential Oil of Vetiver 122
Phyto-constituents 122
Biosynthesis 123
Distillation 124
Economics 124
Ethnobotanical Uses 126
Traditional Application 126
Nutraceutical Application 127
Commercial Applications 127
Agriculture-Related Uses 127
Manure 127
Pesticide 128
Weed Control 128
Flavoring Agent 128
Perfumery 128
Aromatherapy 128
Other Uses 129
Refrigerant 129
Handicrafts 129
Construction 129
Textiles 129
Medicinal Uses and Health Benefits 129
An Update of Therapeutic Potentials of Vetiveria zizanioides 130
Insecticidal Activity 130
Termicidal Activity 130
Pesticidal Activity 131
Anti-plasmodial (Antimalarial) and Larvicidal Activity 131
Anti-tick Activity 131
Antibacterial Activity 132
Antifungal Activity 133
Herbicidal Activity 133
Antioxidant Activity 134
Anticancer Activity 134
Sedative Activity 135
Antidiabetic Activity 135
Antidiuretic Activity 135
Anti-inflammatory Activity 135
Conclusions 136
References 136
Evidence-Based Assessment of Moringa oleifera Used for the Treatment of Human Ailments 141
Introduction 141
Botanical Description 142
Nutrition Value 143
Medicinal Properties 144
Antispasmodic, Antiulcer, and Hepatoprotective Activities 146
Antihypertensive, Diuretic, and Cholesterol-Lowering Activities 147
Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities 148
Antidiabetic Activity 148
Antifertility Activity 149
Antioxidant Activity 150
Anti-asthmatic Activity 150
Anti-inflammatory Activity 150
Analgesic Activity 151
CNS Activity 151
Anthelmintic Activity 151
In Ocular Diseases 151
Anticancer Activity 152
Future Prospect 152
Conclusion 152
References 152
Anticancer Mechanistic Insights of Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate, an Active Ingredient of Green Tea (Camellia sinensis) 158
Introduction 158
Green Tea and Its Composition 159
Bioavailability and Biotransformation of Green Tea Catechins 159
Anticancer Mechanism of Action of Green Tea 160
Anticancer Effect of Green Tea via Modulation of Signaling Pathway 161
Effects of Green Tea Catechins on Tumor Suppressor and Proliferator Gene Modulation 161
Effects of Green Tea Catechins on Proteasome Inhibitory Activity 162
Effects of Green Tea Catechins on Prolylcis/Trans Isomerase (Pin1) Modulation 162
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Apoptosis 163
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Angiogenesis 163
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on NF?B 164
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Androgen Receptors 165
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Telomerase 165
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Wnt Signaling 166
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on MicroRNA 166
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Different Carcinomas 166
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Chronic Myeloid Leukemia 166
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Breast Cancer 167
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Digestive Tract Carcinomas 167
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Prostate Cancer 168
Effect of Green Tea Catechins on Cervical Cancers 168
Synergistic Anticancer Activity of Green Tea Catechins with Different Allopathic Anticancer Drugs 168
Clinical Trials 169
Conclusion 171
References 171
Bioactive Profile of Edible Ripened Split Beans of Three Wild Landraces of Coastal Canavalia 177
Introduction 177
Ripened Beans and Processing 178
Assessment of Bioactive Components 179
Total Phenolics 179
Orthodihydric Phenols 179
Tannins 179
Canavanine 180
Vitamin C 180
Trypsin Inhibition Assay 180
Hemagglutinin Assay 181
Antioxidant Assessment 181
Total Antioxidant Assay 182
Reducing Power Assay 182
Data Analysis 182
Bioactive Components 182
Bioactive Potential 185
Conclusions 188
References 188
Modern Molecular Biology Technologies and Higher Usability of Ancient Knowledge of Medicinal Plants for Treatment of Human Diseases 191
Introduction 193
SNP Genotyping and Identification of Gene and SNP of Interest 194
Phylogenetic Tree 196
Genetic Engineering Techniques to Study the Genes of Interest 196
Gene Knock-Down 198
RNA Interference (RNAi) 198
Gene Knock-Out 200
Zinc Finger Nuclease (ZFNs) 200
Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nuclease (TALENs) 201
CRISPR/Cas9 201
Genome-Scale CRISPR/Cas9 Knock-Out (GeCKO) 202
Animal Studies 204
Steps to Decode the Function of Genes in Human Diseases and Role of Medicinal Plants 205
Selection of SNPs of Interest 205
Collection of Blood Samples and DNA Extraction 205
SNP Genotyping of Candidate Genes 206
SNP Genotyping of Candidate Genes by iPLEX MassARRAY 206
SNP Genotyping of Candidate Genes by TaqMan Assay 207
Statistical Analysis 209
SNP Data Cleaning 209
Data Analysis 209
Association Analysis 210
Interaction Analysis 211
Epistasis Analysis 211
Phylogenetic Tree Generation: Four Steps 213
Gene Knock-Down and Knock-Out 216
Gene Knock-Down 216
Gene Knock-Out (CRISPR/Cas 9 System) 218
Gene Knock-Out (GeCKO) 219
Discussion 219
References 220
EST (Expressed Sequence Tag): A Technique for Identification of Plant Secondary Metabolite Genes 224
Introduction 224
Plant Genome Analysis Utilizing ESTs 225
Expressed Sequence Tag (EST) 226
Methodology 226
Processing of cDNA Sequence 227
Preprocessing 227
Clustering and Assembly of EST 228
Database Similarity Searches 228
Databases for EST Analysis 228
Conclusion 234
References 235
Terpenoids: An Activator of “Fuel-Sensing Enzyme AMPK” with Special Emphasis on Antidiabetic Activity 243
Introduction 243
Plants as a Source of New Medicines 245
Terpenoids 246
Diversity of Terpenoids in Nature 248
Pharmaceutical Application of Terpenoids 249
Diabetes Mellitus 249
Clinical Features and Etiology 250
Type 2 Diabetes 251
AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) 251
Structure of AMPK 252
Role of AMPK in Skeletal Muscle 253
Role of AMPK in Liver 253
Role of AMPK in Adipocytokine Signaling 254
AMPK as a Pharmacological Target: Present and Promise 254
AMPK Activity Is Critical to Cell Physiology in Different Tissues and Organs 254
Organization and Activation of AMPK 256
Activators of AMPK 256
Activation of AMPK by Phytochemicals 257
Conclusion 259
References 260
Active Compounds, Health Effects, and Extraction of Unconventional Plant Seed Oils 261
Introduction 262
Specialty Oils 262
Health Effects of Specialty Oils 263
Nutraceutical Applications of Specialty Oils 264
Almond (Oleum amygdalae) Oil 264
Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) Seed Oil 264
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) Seed Kernel Oil 265
Bitter Gourd (Momordica charantia L.) Seed Oil 265
Black Cumin (Nigella sativa) Seed Oil 265
Black Currant (Ribes nigrum) Seed Oil 265
Borage (Borago officinalis L.) Seed Oil 266
Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L.) Seed Oil 266
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) Seed Oil 266
Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) Seed Oil 266
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) Seed Oil 267
Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) Seed Oil 267
Grape-Seed Oil 267
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Seed Oil 268
Milk Thistle (Silybum marianum L.) Seed Oil 268
Niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass) Seed Oil 268
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Seed Oil 269
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) Seed Oil 269
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Seed Oil 269
White Mahlab (Prunus mahaleb) Seed Oill 270
Bioactive Compounds and Their Health Effects 270
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 270
Linoleic Acid 271
?-Linolenic Acid 271
?-Linolenic Acid 274
Conjugated Linolenic Acid (CLnA) 275
Phenolic Compounds 275
Tocol 277
Sterol and Stanols 279
Squalene 281
Carotenoids and Vitamin A 282
Vitamin K 283
Sphingolipids 284
Phospholipids 285
Plant Seed Oil Extraction Methods 285
Conventional Extraction Methods 286
Chemical Extraction 286
Cold Pressing 287
Novel Extraction Techniques 287
Supercritical Fluid Extraction 287
Gas-Assisted Mechanical Extraction of Oilseeds 288
Aqueous Enzymatic Extraction 288
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 289
Microwave-Assisted Extraction 290
Pulsed-Electric Field Extraction 291
Conclusions and Future Perspectives 292
References 292
Nutritional and Bioactive Profiles of Sprouted Seeds of Mangrove Wild Legume Canavalia cathartica 302
Introduction 302
Seed Samples and Processing 303
Assessment of Nutritional and Bioactive Components 304
Nutritional Composition 304
Seed Qualities 304
Proximal Qualities 304
Mineral Composition 306
Amino Acid Composition 307
Protein Bioavailability 307
Fatty Acids 310
Bioactive Components 311
Conclusion 311
References 312
Contribution of Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) Products in Human Health 317
Introduction 317
Jojoba Oil and Its Involvement in Human Health 318
The Use of Jojoba Leaves and Root Extracts in Health Applications 321
Simmondsin and Its Derivatives: Contribution to Human Health 322
Conclusion and Perspective 322
References 323
Aflatoxins in Plant-Based Foods 327
Introduction 327
Aflatoxin Impact on Human Health 328
Aflatoxin Regulations 329
Analytical Techniques 330
Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Different Plants 331
Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Cereals 331
Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Fruits 332
Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Spices 332
Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Animal Fodder 334
Preventive Measures 335
Conclusions 337
References 337
Potential Roles for Endophytic Fungi in Biotechnological Processes: A Review 340
Introduction 340
Endophytes as Producers of Novel Enzymes 342
Volatile Hydrocarbons from Endophytic Fungi 347
Biotransformation Mediated Through Endophytic Fungi 348
Conclusion 351
References 351
Vitamin E 358
Introduction 359
Vitamin E 359
Discovery of Vitamin E 359
Availability of Vitamin E 360
Leave Tissues 360
Grains 360
Fruits 361
Oils 361
Potential Role of Vitamin E 361
Plant 362
Human 362
Animal 363
Vitamin E Deficiency 363
Plant 363
Human 363
Animal 364
Structure and Chemistry 364
Biosynthesis of Tocochromanols in Plants 365
Conclusion 368
References 368
Bioengineered Plants Can Be an Alternative Source of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Human Health 374
Introduction 374
Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids 375
Marine-Based Source 375
Land-Based Source 375
Alternative Sources for Omega-3 Fatty Acids 377
Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease Control 377
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Regulates Various Proteins 379
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Biosynthetic Pathways 380
Metabolic Fate of Alpha-Linolenic Acid in Humans 382
Metabolic Engineering of Pathways for Production of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (Omega-3 PUFAs) in Transgenic Plants 383
Conclusion 388
References 389
Environmentally Friendly Plant-Based Natural Dyes: Extraction Methodology and Applications 396
Introduction of Natural Dyes 396
Environment Aspects 397
Classification 398
Color-Based Natural Dyes 398
Yellow 399
Red 401
Orange 402
Brown/Black 403
Blue/Purple 403
Green 404
Functional Properties of Natural Dyes 405
Antimicrobial Characteristics 405
Antioxidant Characteristics 407
Deodorant Characteristics 409
UV Protection Characteristics 409
Use of Sustainable Extraction and Dyeing Methodology in Natural Dyeing Process 411
Conventional Method 412
Modern Methods 412
Gamma Radiation 413
Microwave Radiation 413
Ultrasonic Radiation 413
Plasma Technique 414
Ultraviolet Radiation 414
Application of Natural Dyes 415
pH Indicator 415
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 417
Cosmetics 421
Conclusion 422
References 423
Assessment of Pesticide Residues in Vegetables of Telangana State 429
Introduction 429
Study Area 430
Material and Method 430
Sampling 430
Extraction and Cleanup 431
Gas Chromatography 431
Result and Discussion 432
Cauliflower 432
Cabbage 433
Brinjal 433
Conclusion 434
Acknowledgement 434
References 434
An Insight to Micropropagation of Freshwater Aquatic Medicinal Plants 436
Introduction 436
In Vitro Micropropagation of Freshwater Aquatic Medicinal Plants 437
Aquatic Job’s Tears (Coix aquatica Roxb. Poaceae)
Centella (Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Apiaceae)
Ceylon Hydrolea (Hydrolea zeylanica Linn. (Vahl): Hydrophyllaceae) 438
Chinese Water Chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis Trinius ex Henschel Cyperaceae)
Coontail or Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum L. Ceratophyllaceae)
Creeping Coldenia (Coldenia procumbens Linn. Boraginaceae)
Creeping Jenny (Lysimachia nummularia L. Primulaceae)
Dwarf Hygro (Hygrophila polysperma Anderson Acanthaceae)
Dwarf Water Clover (Marsilea minuta L. Marsileaceae)
East Indian Globe Thistle or Kamdaryus (Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. Asteraceae)
Eclipta (Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Asteraceae)
Epaltes (Epaltes divaricata L. Cass.: Asteraceae 443
Indian Heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum Linn. Boraginaceae)
Job’s Tears (Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. Poaceae)
Limnophila (Limnophila aromatica R.Br. Plantaginaceae)
Neeramulli (Hygrophila schulli Buch.-Ham.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida
Roundleaf Toothcup (Rotala rotundifolia (Roxb.) Koehne Lythraceae)
Sessile Joyweed (Alternanthera sessilis Amaranthaceae)
Sola Pith Plant (Aeschynomene aspera Linn. Fabaceae)
Spreading Sneeze weed (Centipeda minima A. Braun and Ascheron Asteraceae)
Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus Araceae)
Water Hyssop or Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell) 447
Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae)
Water Pepper (Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre Polygonaceae)
Water Spinach (Ipomea aquatica Forssk. Convolvulaceae)
White Ginger Lilly (Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig Zingiberaceae)
White Snowflake (Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze Menyanthaceae)
Conclusion 451
References 451
Arsenic and Heavy Metal (Cadmium, Lead, Mercury and Nickel) Contamination in Plant-Based Foods 457
Introduction 457
Plant-Based Foods 459
Effects of As, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni on Human Health 462
Arsenic, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni in Cereal Grains 464
Arsenic, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni in Vegetables 469
Arsenic, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni in Fruits 474
Arsenic, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni in Nuts 475
Arsenic, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni in Pulses 482
Arsenic, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni in Plant Oils 484
Sources and Remedies 484
Conclusions 488
References 488
Ganoderma lucidum: A Macro Fungus with Phytochemicals and Their Pharmacological Properties 501
Introduction 501
Diversity of Reishi 503
Cultivation 503
Marketed Formulation Other Than Medicinal 504
Methodology 506
Major Bioactive Constituents and Their Pharmacological Properties 506
Triterpenes 506
Carbohydrates 510
Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids 512
Nucleosides, Nucleotides, and RNAs 512
Organic Germanium, Alkaloids, Vitamins, Essential Minerals 513
Dietary Fiber 513
Fatty Acids and Sterols 514
Safety Issues 514
Future Prospect 514
Conclusion 516
References 517
Functional Attributes of Seeds of Two Coastal Germplasms of Sesbania 526
Introduction 526
Seeds and Processing 527
Assessment of Functional Properties 528
Protein Solubility 528
Gelation 529
Water and Oil Absorption 529
Emulsion 529
Foam 530
Data Analysis 530
Functional Properties 530
Protein Solubility 530
Gelation 532
Water and Oil Absorption 532
Emulsion 533
Foam 535
Discussion 538
Protein Solubility 538
Gelation 541
Water and Oil Absorption 542
Emulsion 543
Foam 544
Conclusions 545
References 545
Multiple Uses of Some Important Aquatic and Semiaquatic Medicinal Plants 550
Introduction 550
Major Aquatic and Semiaquatic Medicinal Plants 552
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag  Araceae)
Alternanthera philoxeroides Geiseb. (Alligator Weed Amaranthaceae)
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br.(Sessile Joyweed  Amaranthaceae)
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell. (Water Hyssop or Brahmi  Plantaginaceae)
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Centella  Apiaceae)
Centipeda minima A. Braun and Ascheron (Spreading Sneezeweed Asteraceae)
Coix lacryma-Jobi Linn. (Job’s Tears Poaceae)
Enhydra fluctuans Lour (Water cress  Asteraceae)
Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig (White Ginger Lily  Zingiberaceae)
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. (Lawn Marshpennywort  Araliaceae)
Ipomea aquatica Forssk. (Water Spinach  Convolvulaceae)
Marsilea minuta L. (Dwarf Water Clover Marsileaceae)
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (the Sacred Lotus Nelumbonaceae)
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. F. (Blue Water Lily Nymphaeaceae)
Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre (Water Pepper Polygonaceae)
Rotula aquatica Lour. (Aquatic Rotala  Boraginaceae)
Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. (East Indian Globe Thistle Asteraceae)
Pistia stratiotes L. (Water Lettuce Araceae)
Polygonum glabrum Willdenow (Dense-Flower Knotweed Polygonaceae)
Medicinal Uses of Some Less Important Aquatic and Semiaquatic Medicinal Plants 563
Medicinal Uses of Minor Aquatic Medicinal Plants 563
Medicinal Uses of Some Important Amphibian (Semiaquatic) Medicinal Plants 566
Conclusion 569
References 569
Flavonoids and Their Biological Secrets 587
Introduction 587
Flavonols 587
Fisetin 588
Biological Properties 589
Galangin 590
Biological Properties 590
Gossypin 591
Biological Properties 592
Isorhamnetin 593
Biological Properties 593
Kaempferol/Kaempferide 595
Rhamnetin and Rhamnazin 597
Biological Properties 597
Quercetin 598
Biological Properties 599
Morin 599
Biological Properties 599
Myricetin 600
Biological Properties 601
Natsudaidain 602
Biological Properties 602
Drug Leads and Pharmacophores from Flavonols 603
Conclusions 604
References 604
Impact of Electron Beam Irradiation on the Nutritional Attributes of Seeds of Coastal Sand Dune Wild Legume Canavalia cathartica 614
Introduction 614
Seeds and Processing 615
Nutritional Assessment 617
Proximal Analysis 617
Mineral Analysis 618
Protein Fractions 618
Amino Acid Analysis 618
Protein Digestibility, EAA Score, PDCAAS, and PER 619
Data Analysis 620
Nutritional Qualities 620
Proximal Features 620
Minerals 621
Protein Fractions 621
Amino Acids 622
IVPD, EAA, PDCAAS, and PER 623
Discussion 624
Seeds and Proximal Features 624
Mineral Profile 626
Protein Fractions 627
Amino Acid Profile 627
IVPD, EAA Score, PDCAAS, and PER 627
Fatty Acid Profile 628
Conclusions 629
References 629
Phytochemical Profile and Therapeutic Properties of Leafy Vegetables 633
Introduction 633
Plant Metabolites 634
Primary Metabolites 634
Protein 634
Dietary Fiber 636
Vitamins 637
Vitamin A 637
Riboflavin 638
Folic Acid 639
Vitamin C 639
Minerals 640
Iron 640
Zinc 640
Calcium and Magnesium 641
Secondary Metabolites 641
Phenolic Compounds 641
Alkaloids 647
Carotenoids 647
Flavonoids 648
Anti-nutritional Components 648
Oxalic Acid 648
Phytic Acid 648
Glucosinolates 649
Saponin 649
Protease Inhibitor 649
Therapeutic Values and Health Benefits of GLVs 650
Antidiabetic Properties 650
Antimicrobial and Anti-inflammatory Activity 651
Antioxidant Property 652
Cardiovascular Disease and Leafy Vegetables 652
Hypertension and Leafy Vegetables 652
Fertility and LV 653
Anticancerous Properties 654
Hepatoprotective 654
Gastroprotective 655
Antimalarial 655
Other Effects 655
Different Methods of Processing Green Leafy Vegetables 656
Conclusions 658
References 658
Phenolic Acids and Their Health-Promoting Activity 667
Introduction 667
Plant Phenolics 668
Introduction 668
Flavonoids 670
Stilbenes 670
Lignans 670
Tannins 671
Variability Related to Plant Samples 671
Phenolic Compounds in Cultivated Plants 672
Composition of Phenolics in Common Foods 672
Effect of Phenolic Compounds on Food Quality 673
Changes Induced by Food Processing 673
Phenolic Acids in Soils 674
Effect of Environmental Changes on Phenolics 674
Elevated CO2 675
Warming 675
N Deposition 675
Drought 676
Health-Promoting Activity of Phenolic Compounds 676
Antioxidant Activity 677
Anti-inflammatory Properties 678
Antimicrobial Actions 679
Anti-diabetic Properties 680
Antiglycation Properties 680
Other Activities 681
References 682
Index 687