A History of Midwifery in the United States (eBook)

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

Introduction

Definitions, Titles, and Credentials

Nurse-Midwives

Lay, Empirical, Community, and Direct-Entry Midwives

Midwifery and Midwives Through the Centuries

Midwifery Models of Care

The ACNM Midwifery Model of Care

MANA: “The Midwives’ Model of Care™”

Summary of Midwifery Models of Care

SECTION I: EARLY HISTORY OF MIDWIFERY IN THE UNITED STATES (1600s–1940s)

1. The Early Voices of Midwives

The Voices of Predecessor Midwives in Antiquity

The Voices of Midwives in the Colonies (1607–1775) and Early History of the United States (1776−Mid-1800s)

The Voices of Traditional African American Antebellum Slave Midwives (1619–1861)

The Voices of Granny Midwives (Late 1800s−Mid-1900s)

The Voices of Immigrant Midwives and Other Midwives in the Late 1800s and Early 1900s

2. Silencing the Early Voices of Midwives: 1600s to 1800s

Advances in Knowledge and Exclusion of Midwives and Women From Learning

Midwifery in Europe

Study Abroad for Physicians and Their Takeover of Midwifery in the United States

Development of Medical Schools and the Flexner Report

Women in Medicine

Professionalization of Medicine and the Specialty of Obstetrics

Pain Relief During Childbirth: Ether and Chloroform

3. Silencing the Early Voices of Midwives (Late 1800s–Early 1900s)

The “Midwife Problem”

Legislation/Rules/Regulations and the Practice of Midwifery

Nursing and Midwifery

The Bellevue School for Midwives

“Twilight Sleep”

Professionalization of Nursing, Nursing Education, and Public Health Nursing

Professionalization of Midwifery Needed to Survive

4. Silencing the Early Voices of Midwives (Late 1910s–Mid-1940s)

Closure of the Bellevue School for Midwives

Restrictive Legislation

The Continuing Move Into Hospitals

Silencing the Immigrant Japanese Sanba Midwives

SECTION II: HISTORY OF EARLY NURSE-MIDWIFERY PRACTICE AND EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES (1920s–EARLY 1950s)

5. Nursing Roots

Florence Nightingale

Public Health Nursing

Public Health Policies, Programs, and Public Health Nursing

Children’s Bureau

Prenatal Care

Maternity Center Association

Public Health Nurses as Midwives

Sheppard–Towner Act

6. The Nurse-Midwife Starts Practicing (1920s–Early 1950s)

Frontier Nursing Service

Lobenstine Midwifery Clinic

Practice of Early Nurse-Midwifery Education Program Graduates (1925–1954)

Family-Centered Maternity Care and Natural Childbirth

7. Early Education for Nurse-Midwives (1920s–1954)

Manhattan Midwifery School

Lobenstine/Maternity Center Association Midwifery School

Frontier Nursing School of Midwifery

Tuskegee School of Nurse-Midwifery

Dillard University Flint-Goodridge School of Nurse-Midwifery

Catholic Maternity Institute School of Nurse-Midwifery and Catholic University of America

SECTION III: HISTORY OF THE RESURGENCE OF COMMUNITY MIDWIVES AND EARLY EDUCATION PATHWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES (1960s–1980s)

8. Resurgence of Community Midwives

Consumer Demand for Out-of-Hospital Birth

Responses to Consumer Demands

Midwife Responses to Consumer Demands

Legal Responses to Consumer Demands

Organizational Responses to Consumer Demands

Variety of Lay Midwife Practitioners in the 1960s and 1970s

Communication and Networking

9. Early Education Pathways for Community and Lay Midwives (1970s and 1980s)

Apprentice Education: 1800s to 1970s

Definitions

Early History of Apprentice Education in Medicine

Early History of Apprentice Education in Nursing

Apprentice Education in Midwifery During the 1970s and Early 1980s

Key Issues Related to Apprentice Education in Midwifery

Academic Models of Lay/Community Midwife Education

The Maternity Center at El Paso Training Program (1976)

Arizona School of Midwifery (1977)–Tucson

Seattle Midwifery School (1978)

Utah College of Midwifery/Midwives College of Utah (1980)—Salt Lake City

Northern Arizona College of Midwifery (1981)

Maternidad La Luz (1987)—El Paso

The Northern Arizona School of Midwifery (1988)—Flagstaff

The New Mexico College of Midwifery (1989)/National College of Midwifery (1991)—Taos

SECTION IV: DEVELOPMENT OF MIDWIFERY ORGANIZATIONS—LIFE-GIVING FORCES FOR MIDWIVES

Introduction and Overview of Professionalism and Professionalization

Definition and Characteristics of a Profession

Key Characteristics of a Professional

Professionalism and Professionalization

 10. The American College of Nurse-Midwives

Predecessor Organizations

Founding of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery

Organizational Development

Incorporation

The Seal of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery/Nurse-Midwives

Mission

Bylaws and Structure

Presidents

Headquarters/National Office

Communication

A.C.N.M. Foundation

Awards

Core Documents

Definitions

Philosophy

Functions, Standards, and Qualifications

Core Competencies

ACNM Code of Ethics

Peer Review

Home Birth, Practice Settings, and Review of Clinical Practice Statement Documents

 11. Midwives Alliance of North America

Predecessor Organizations

First International Conference of Practicing Midwives (January 14–16, 1977)

National Midwives Association (June 1977)

Second International Conference of Practicing Midwives (March 17−19, 1978)

Meeting of CNMs and Non-Nurse Midwives (October 30, 1981)

Founding of Midwives Alliance of North America

Organizational Development

MANA Goals

First Convention and the MANA Process

Mission

Philosophy

Bylaws

Presidents

Committee Structure

Statistics and Research Committee

Communication/Public Relations (Education) Committee

Communication/MANA News

Central Office

Essential (Core) Documents

Standards and Qualifications for the Art and Practice of Midwifery

Core Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice

MANA Statement of Values and Ethics

MANA Position Statements

Descriptive Statistics

Coda

 12. National Association of Certified Professional Midwives

Early History and Founding

Organizational Development

Purpose and Aim

Board of Directors

Standards Committee

Practice Committee

Core Documents

Mission

Philosophy and Principles of Practice

Scope of Practice

The Standards of Practice for NACPM Members

Issue Brief: Certified Professional Midwives in the United States

NACPM Website

Coda

SECTION V: HISTORY OF NURSE-MIDWIFERY PRACTICE AND EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES (1950s−1980s)

 13. Nurse-Midwifery Practice (1950s–1980s)

Nurse-Midwives Move Into Large City and University Medical Center Hospitals

Psychoprophylaxis

Technological Advances and the Continuing Quest for Pain Relief

Nurse-Midwives Move Into Private Practice With Births Both In and Out of a Hospital

Nurse-Midwives Create the Modern Out-of-Hospital Birth Center

Practical Practice Help From the ACNM

Evaluation and Effectiveness Studies

Descriptive Studies

 14. Nurse-Midwifery Education (1955−1980s)

Types of Programs

Growth Spurts

Education Workshops

Developments in Education

Mastery Learning Using Modules

Directors of Midwifery Education

A Textbook for Midwifery

Distance Learning

SECTION VI: HISTORY OF DIRECT-ENTRY MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AND THE CREDENTIALING OF MIDWIVES IN THE UNITED STATES

 15. Direct-Entry Midwifery Education

American College of Nurse-Midwives (1978–1996)

ACNM Education Committee

ACNM Division of Accreditation

Midwives Alliance of North America (1983–1991)

MANA Education Committee

National Coalition of Midwifery Educators

Association of Midwifery Educators

 16. Credentialing of Midwives

Accreditation

Accreditation Commission for Midwifery Education and Predecessors

Committee to Study and Evaluate Standards for Schools of Midwifery

Committee on Curriculum and Accreditation

Committee on Approval of Educational Programs

Division of Approval

Division of Accreditation

Accreditation Commission for Midwifery Education

Midwifery Education Accreditation Council

Credentialing Committee

MEAC Incorporated

MEAC Criteria for Direct-Entry Midwifery Education Programs

USDOE Recognition

Early MEAC-Accredited Programs

Certification

American Midwifery Certification Board and Predecessors

ACNM Testing Committee

Division of Examiners

ACNM Certification Council/American Midwifery Certification Board

North American Registry of Midwives

MANA Interim Registry Board

Creation of the MANA Registry Examination

North American Registry of Midwives Incorporated

Conversion From Registry to Certification Examination

NARM Certification of Direct-Entry Midwives

Licensure

Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives

Legislation Committee

Political and Economic Affairs Committee/Government Affairs Committee

Lay and Direct-Entry Midwives

Licensure Debates

State Recognition of Lay Midwifery Practice Prior to 1982

State Recognition of Direct-Entry Midwifery Practice After 1982

Certified Professional Midwives

The Big Push for Midwives Campaign (2008)

SECTION VII: EXTERNAL/INTERNAL RELATIONSHIPS AFFECTING MIDWIFERY

 17. Federal Legislation Affecting Midwifery Practice

The American College of Nurse-Midwives’ Involvement in Legislation

Washington Task Force

Legislation Committee

Master Plan and ACNM Legislative Response Mechanisms

ACNM Lobbyist

Early Federal Legislation

Midwives-PAC

Direct-Entry Midwifery Groups’ Involvement in Legislation

MANA Legislative Committee

MANA Legislative Conferences

MANA Legislative Lobbyist, 1994

NACPM and the Midwives and Mothers in Action Campaign

Collaborative Efforts in Maternity Care Legislation

Safe Motherhood Acts, 1996, 2002

Affordable Care Act of 2010

Coalition for Quality Maternity Care

 18. Midwives With Women and Childbearing Families

Consumers and Midwives Working Together for Safe Choices Among Childbirth Alternatives

Maternity Center Association

La Leche League, 1958, and La Leche League International, 1964

International Childbirth Education Association, 1960

American Society for Psychoprophylaxis in Obstetrics/Lamaze, 1960

National Association of Parents & Professionals for Safe Alternatives in Childbirth, 1975

Other Partnerships Supporting Safe Alternatives in Childbirth

Listening to Women

ACNM Ad Hoc Committee on Consumer Affairs

ACNM’s Listen to Women Campaign

Citizens for Midwifery, Inc.

Childbirth Connection 2005

Public Policy Agenda for Women

Midwives With Vulnerable Populations

ACNM Position Statements on Health Policy

American Public Health Association Policy Statements on Midwives and Women’s Health

Safe Motherhood Initiatives, USA

 19. Midwives (CNMs) With Physicians

Historical Evolution

Joint Statements

Coda

20. Midwives (CNMs) With Nurses and Nursing

Early Confusion With Identity of Nurse-Midwives

Nurse Practitioners, Physician Assistants, and ANA

National Federation of Specialty Nursing Organizations and ANA

ANA and Early Certification Efforts

ACNM’s Continuing Internal Struggle With Self-Identification and the Working Document

Nurse-Midwives and OB-GYN Nurse Practitioners

ANA Develops a Credentialing Center

ANA Defines Nurse-Midwives as Nurse Practitioners

ACNM Defines Nurse-Midwives

ANA Defines Nurse-Midwives as Advanced Practice Registered Nurses

AACN and Accreditation

Nursing Response to ACNM Involvement in Direct-Entry Midwifery

Nurse-Midwives Included in APRN Regulation

Self-Identification and Loss of Autonomy

Coda

 21. Midwives With Midwives: United States

Carnegie Meetings Stimulate Midwifery Dialogue in the United States

First Carnegie Meeting: July 16 to 18, 1989

MANA–ACNM Activities Between the Two Carnegie Meetings

Second Carnegie Meeting: July 22 to 24, 1990

The MANA-ACNM Interorganizational Workgroup on Midwifery Education

Carnegie Funds Awarded

Goals of IWG

Selection of Workgroup Members

The IWG Meetings

Factors Mitigating Against Achievement of Carnegie and IWG Goals

Different Organizational Processes

Words and Concepts Without Common Meaning

Philosophy of Inclusiveness

Level of Midwifery Education

University Affiliation for Midwifery Education

Misunderstanding on Who Develops Education Programs

Suspicions About IWG Activities

Final Outcomes of IWG Meetings

The Grand Midwife Statement

Midwifery Certification Document

Liaison Planning Document

Continuing ACNM and MANA Dialogue

The Bridge Club

ACNM–MANA Liaison Group

United States Midwifery Education, Regulation, and Association

 22. Midwives With Midwives: International

The International Confederation of Midwives

Brief History

Aim and Strategic Actions

Organization and Structure

ICM Activities and Documents

ICM International Definition of the Midwife

ICM Mission and Vision

ICM International Code of Ethics for Midwives

ICM Philosophy and Model of Midwifery Care

ICM Essential Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice

ICM Global Standards for Education and Regulation

The Three Pillars of Education, Regulation, and Association

ACNM’s Role in International Midwifery

Index