Herbal Medicine in Depression (eBook)

She is reviewer for more than 20 international journals focusing a broad range of scientific fields, such as natural products, analytical chemistry, neurosciences and biomedicine and she authored 25 publications in journals indexed to Journal Citation Reports from ISI Web of Knowledge. She also authored 2 book chapters, one of them on behalf of the CYTED action 112RT0460 “CORNUCOPIA” thematic network, 5 papers in conference proceedings, 4 oral communications and 15 posters in international meetings. Her total impact factor is 63.536 and her h-index is 11 (scopus database) or 9 (ISI Web of Knowledge). Since 2007, her papers received 254 citations from 191 peer-reviewed papers.

Preface 6
Acknowledgements 8
Contents 10
Contributors 12
Chapter 1: Depressive Disorders: Prevalence, Costs, and Theories 15
1.1 Introduction 15
1.1.1 Depressive Disorders 16
1.1.2 Bipolar and Related Disorders 17
1.2 Prevalence 18
1.3 Economic Burden 25
1.4 Theories of Depression 26
1.4.1 Monoamine Theories 26
1.4.2 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Depression 28
1.4.3 Neuroinflammation and Depression 30
1.4.4 Neurogenesis Theory 32
1.4.5 Neurotrophic Theory 34
1.4.6 Glutamate Hypothesis 35
1.4.7 The GABAergic Hypothesis 38
1.4.8 Glial Pathology in Depression 40
1.4.9 Epigenetic Theory 41
1.4.10 Circadian Rhythm and Depression 44
1.5 Conclusions 46
References 46
Chapter 2: Traditional and Novel Possible Targets for Antidepressant Drugs 56
2.1 Introduction 57
2.2 Brief Historical Overview of Antidepressant Drug Development 58
2.2.1 The Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression: Catecholamine (Schildkraut 1965) and Indoleamine Hypothesis (Coppen 1967) 58
2.2.2 Beta-Receptor Downregulation Theory of the Mechanism of Action of Antidepressant Drugs 58
2.3 Current Antidepressant Drugs: Mechanisms of Action 60
2.3.1 Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) 61
2.3.1.1 Nonselective MAO Binding 62
2.3.1.2 Serotonergic Pharmacodynamics Interactions (Serotonin Syndrome) 64
2.3.1.3 Irreversible Binding to MAO 64
2.3.2 Reversible Selective Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (RIMAs) 65
2.3.3 Tricyclic Antidepressant Drugs (TCAs) 65
2.3.4 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) 66
2.3.5 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Enhancing Antidepressants 68
2.3.6 Selective Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors (NARIs) 68
2.4 Second-Generation Dual-Action Antidepressants 69
2.4.1 Selective Serotonin and Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs) 69
2.4.1.1 Venlafaxine and Desmethylvenlafaxine 69
2.4.1.2 Milnacipran 70
2.4.1.3 Duloxetine 70
2.4.2 Noradrenaline and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors 71
2.4.3 Receptor-Selective Antidepressant Drugs 71
2.4.3.1 Noradrenergic and Specific Serotonergic Antidepressants (NASSAs) 72
Mianserin 72
Mirtazapine 72
Trazodone 72
Nefazodone 73
2.4.3.2 Dual-Action Selective Serotonergic Antidepressants 73
Vilazodone 74
Vortioxetine 74
2.4.3.3 Melatonin Receptor-Selective Drugs 74
Agomelatine 74
2.5 Future Antidepressants: Targets of Action 75
2.5.1 Monoamine Targets 76
2.5.1.1 Triple Monoamine Reuptake Inhibitors 76
2.5.1.2 Atypical Antipsychotics 77
2.5.2 Non-monoamine Neurotransmitter Targets 77
2.5.2.1 Acetylcholine System 77
2.5.2.2 Glutamate System 78
2.5.3 Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis 78
2.5.4 Immune System 79
2.5.5 Pharmacogenetics 80
2.6 Conclusions 81
References 82
Chapter 3: Cell-Based Systems of Depression: An Overview 87
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Mechanisms of Depression: Hypothesis 88
3.3 Neuronal Cell Models for Depression 91
3.3.1 Primary Neuronal Cell Cultures 91
3.3.1.1 Methodology 91
3.3.1.2 Depression Aspects Studied in Primary Neuronal Cell Cultures 93
3.3.2 Rat Pheochromocytoma PC12 Cell Line 95
3.3.2.1 Methodology 95
3.3.2.2 Depression Aspects Studied in PC12 Cell Line 96
3.3.3 Human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells 103
3.3.3.1 Methodology 104
3.3.3.2 Depression Aspects Studied in SH-SY5Y Cells 104
3.3.4 HT-22 Cell Line 105
3.3.4.1 Methodology 105
3.3.4.2 Depression Aspects Studied in HT-22 Cells 106
3.3.5 AR-5 Cell Line 106
3.3.5.1 Methodology 107
3.3.5.2 Depression Aspects Studied in AR-5 Cells 107
3.4 Glial Cell Cultures 107
3.4.1 Primary Glial Cell Cultures 108
3.4.1.1 Methodology 108
3.4.1.2 Depression Aspects Studied in Primary Mixed Glial Cell Cultures 109
3.4.2 Rat C6 Glioma Cell Line 111
3.4.2.1 Methodology 111
3.4.2.2 Depression Aspects Studied in C6 Cell Line 111
3.4.3 BV2 Microglial Culture 112
3.4.3.1 Methodology 113
3.4.3.2 Depression Aspects Studied in BV2 Cell Line 113
3.5 Conclusions and Future Directions 113
References 114
Chapter 4: Animal Models of Depression 130
4.1 Introduction 131
4.2 Study of Depression in Rodents 131
4.3 Endophenotypes in Animal Models of Depression 132
4.3.1 Anhedonia 132
4.3.2 Behavioral Distress 132
4.3.3 Changes in Appetite or Weight Gain 132
4.3.4 Neuroendocrine Disorders 132
4.3.5 Alterations in Sleep Architecture 132
4.3.6 Behavior Related to Anxiety 133
4.4 Experimental Models of Depression 133
4.4.1 Learned Helplessness (LH) 134
4.4.2 Forced Swim Test (FST) 136
4.4.3 Tail Suspension Test (TST) 137
4.4.4 The Chronic Mild Stress 138
4.4.5 Social Stress 139
4.4.6 Olfactory Bulbectomy 139
4.5 Advantages of Experimental Models of Depression 139
4.6 Limitations of Animal Models 141
4.7 Conclusion 141
References 142
Chapter 5: Prevalence of Use of Herbal Medicines and Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Europe 145
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 Search Methods 147
5.3 References 147
5.4 Hypericum perforatum L. 149
5.4.1 (Hypericaceae) 149
5.5 References 155
5.6 Valeriana officinalis L.. 156
5.6.1 (Valerianaceae) 156
5.7 References 165
5.8 Ocimum basilicum L. 166
5.8.1 (Lamiaceae) 166
5.9 References 171
5.10 Melissa officinalis L. 172
5.10.1 (Lamiaceae) 172
5.11 References 178
5.12 Tilia sp.. 178
5.12.1 (Malvaceae) 178
5.13 References 187
5.14 Verbena officinalis L. 187
5.14.1 (Verbenaceae) 187
5.15 References 191
Chapter 6: Medicinal Plants from Countries of Former USSR Used for Treatment of Depression 192
6.1 Introduction 192
6.2 Search Methods 193
6.3 References 193
6.4 Hypericum perforatum L. 193
6.4.1 (Hypericaceae) 193
6.5 References 202
6.6 Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr et Maxim.) Maxim 205
6.6.1 (Araliaceae) 205
6.7 References 214
6.8 Leonurus cardiaca L 216
6.8.1 (Lamiaceae) 216
6.9 References 225
6.10 Leonurus turkestanicus V.I. Kreczetovicz and Kuprianova 228
6.10.1 (Lamiaceae) 228
6.11 References 232
6.12 Nepeta cataria L 233
6.12.1 (Lamiaceae) 233
6.13 References 239
6.14 Oplopanax elatus (Nakai) Nakai 242
6.14.1 (Araliaceae) 242
6.15 References 248
6.16 Patrinia intermedia (Hornem.) Roem et Schult 249
6.16.1 (Valerianaceae) 249
6.17 References 254
6.18 Rhaponticum carthamoides (Willd.) Iljin 256
6.18.1 (Asteraceae) 256
6.19 References 265
Chapter 7: Chinese Herbal Medicine Used Against Depression in China 268
7.1 Introduction 269
7.2 References 270
7.3 Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Harms 271
7.3.1 Acanthopanacis Senticosi Radix et Rhizoma seu Caulis 271
7.3.1.1 (Araliaceae) 271
7.4 References 278
7.5 Acorus tatarinowii Schott 278
7.5.1 Acorus Tatarinowii Rhizoma 278
7.5.1.1 (Araceae) 278
7.6 References 283
7.7 Allium macrostemon Bunge 284
7.7.1 Allii Macrostemonis Bulbus 284
7.7.1.1 (Liliaceae) 284
7.8 References 288
7.9 Aloe barbadensis Miller 289
7.9.1 Aloe 289
7.9.1.1 (Liliaceae) 289
7.10 References 292
7.11 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban 292
7.11.1 Centellae herba 292
7.11.1.1 (Apiaceae) 292
7.12 References 296
7.13 Corydalis yanhusuo W.T. Wang 297
7.13.1 Corydalis Rhizoma 297
7.13.1.1 (Papaveraceae) 297
7.14 References 300
7.15 Crocus sativus L. 301
7.15.1 Croci Stigma 301
7.15.1.1 (Iridaceae) 301
7.16 References 306
7.17 Cyperus rotundus L. 307
7.17.1 Cyperi Rhizoma 307
7.17.1.1 (Cyperaceae) 307
7.18 References 316
7.19 Citrus aurantium L. 317
7.19.1 Fructus Aurantii 317
7.19.1.1 (Rutaceae) 317
7.20 References 322
7.21 Ginkgo biloba L. 323
7.21.1 Ginkgo Folium 323
7.21.1.1 (Ginkgoaceae) 323
7.22 References 327
7.23 Panax ginseng C. A. Mey. 327
7.23.1 Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma 327
7.23.1.1 (Araliaceae) 327
7.24 References 332
7.25 Hypericum perforatum L. 333
7.25.1 Hyperici perforati herba 333
7.25.1.1 (Guttiferae) 333
7.26 References 336
7.27 Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner 337
7.27.1 Nelumbinis Semen 337
7.27.1.1 (Nymphaeaceae) 337
7.28 References 341
7.29 Paeonia lactiflora Pall. 341
7.29.1 Paeoniae Radix Alba 341
7.29.1.1 (Ranunculaceae) 341
7.30 References 346
7.31 Polygala tenuifolia Willd. 347
7.31.1 Polygalae Radix 347
7.31.1.1 (Polygalaceae) 347
7.32 References 351
7.33 Polygonum multiflorum (Thunberg) Haraldson 351
7.33.1 Polygoni Multiflori Caulis 351
7.33.1.1 (Polygonaceae) 351
7.34 References 354
7.35 Bupleurum chinense de Candolle or Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willdenow 355
7.35.1 Radix Bupleuri 355
7.35.1.1 (Umbelliferae) 355
7.36 References 360
7.37 Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. 361
7.37.1 Rhizoma Chuanxiong 361
7.37.1.1 (Umbelliferae) 361
7.38 References 367
7.39 Curcuma longa L. 367
7.39.1 Rhizoma Curcumae Longae 367
7.39.1.1 (Zingiberaceae) 367
7.40 References 373
7.41 Rhodiola rosea L. 374
7.41.1 Rhodiolae Rosea 374
7.41.1.1 (Crassulaceae) 374
7.42 References 378
7.43 Valeriana officinalis L. 378
7.43.1 Radix Valerianae 378
7.43.1.1 (Valerianaceae) 378
7.44 References 382
7.45 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex H. F. Chow 383
7.45.1 Ziziphi Spinosae Semen 383
7.46 References 388
Chapter 8: Antidepressant Medicinal Plants and Compounds Used in Traditional Medicines in North America 389
8.1 Introduction 390
8.2 References 393
8.3 Hypericum perforatum L 395
8.3.1 (Hypericaceae) 395
8.4 References 401
8.5 Magnolia dealbata Zucc 403
8.5.1 (Magnoliaceae) 403
8.6 References 406
8.7 Passiflora incarnata L 407
8.7.1 (Passifloraceae) 407
8.8 References 413
8.9 Tilia americana var. mexicana (Schltdl.) Hardin 414
8.9.1 (Malvaceae) 414
8.10 References 418
8.11 Valeriana edulis Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray ssp. procera (Kunth) F.G. Mey
8.11.1 (Valerianaceae) 419
8.12 References 425
8.13 Galphimia glauca Cav. 428
8.13.1 (Malpighiaceae) 428
8.14 References 431
8.15 Annona muricata L. 433
8.15.1 (Annonaceae) 433
8.16 References 438
Chapter 9: Antidepressant Plant Species from the Portuguese-Speaking African Countries (PALOP) 440
9.1 Introduction 441
9.1.1 The Portuguese-Speaking African Countries 441
9.1.1.1 Health Services 442
9.1.1.2 African Traditional Medicine 443
9.1.2 Depression: A Mental Disorder 444
9.1.2.1 Antidepressant Drugs and Medicinal Plants as Alternative Therapy 445
9.2 Methods 446
9.3 Conclusions 447
9.4 References 447
9.5 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell 449
9.5.1 Scrophulariaceae 449
9.6 References 453
9.7 Boophone disticha (L.f.) Herb 454
9.7.1 (Amaryllidaceae) 454
9.8 References 457
9.9 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb 458
9.9.1 (Apiaceae) 458
9.10 References 462
9.11 Cissampelos Genus 463
9.11.1 (Menispermaceae) 463
9.12 References 466
9.13 Griffonia simplicifolia (Vahl ex DC.) Baill 467
9.13.1 (Fabaceae) 467
9.14 References 471
9.15 Mondia whitei (Hook. f.) Skeels 471
9.15.1 (Apocynaceae) 471
9.16 References 474
9.17 Palisota hirsuta (Thunb.) K. Schum 474
9.17.1 (Commelinaceae) 474
9.18 References 477
9.19 Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen 478
9.19.1 (Polygalaceae) 478
9.20 References 483
9.21 Xysmalobium undulatum (L.) W.T. Aiton 484
9.21.1 (Apocynaceae) 484
9.22 References 487
Chapter 10: Oceania: Antidepressant Medicinal Plants 489
10.1 Geopolitical/Cultural Context 490
10.2 Search Methods 492
10.3 References 492
10.4 Areca catechu L. 493
10.4.1 (Arecaceae) 493
10.5 References 496
10.6 Backhousia citriodora F. Muell 497
10.6.1 (Myrtaceae) 497
10.7 References 499
10.8 Duboisia hopwoodii (F. Muell.) F. Muell 500
10.8.1 (Solanaceae) 500
10.9 References 503
10.10 Duboisia myoporoides R.Br 503
10.10.1 (Solanaceae) 503
10.11 References 506
10.12 Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn 507
10.12.1 (Nelumbonaceae) 507
10.13 References 510
10.14 Piper methysticum G. Forst 512
10.14.1 (Piperaceae) 512
10.15 References 516
10.16 Piper novae-hollandiae Miq 517
10.16.1 (Piperaceae) 517
10.17 References 520
10.18 Tasmannia lanceolata (Poir.) A.C.Sm 520
10.18.1 (Winteraceae) 520
10.19 References 525
10.20 Terminalia ferdinandiana Exell 526
10.20.1 (Combretaceae) 526
10.21 References 532
Chapter 11: Novel Drug Delivery Systems for Herbal Antidepressants 534
11.1 Introduction 535
11.1.1 Epidemiology 535
11.2 Management of Depression 535
11.3 Herbals to Rescue 536
11.3.1 The State of Oxidant-Antioxidant Brain Balance 540
11.3.2 Mechanisms Underlying the Anti-depressant Effects of Herbals 541
11.3.3 Smart Drugs to Dirty Drugs: An Interplay 542
11.3.4 Challenges with the Herbal Drugs 543
11.3.4.1 Blood Brain Barrier: A Major Challenge 545
11.4 Need of the Hour: Novel Delivery Systems 545
11.4.1 Strategies Employed to Cross the BBB 546
11.4.1.1 Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems 547
11.5 Nanodevices 550
11.6 Intranasal Delivery 552
11.7 Transdermal Route 552
11.8 Risks of Using Nanotechnology for Depression 553
11.9 FDA Regulations on Herbal Drugs 554
11.10 Analytical Method Validation for Herbals: A Problem! 556
11.11 Future Perspective and Conclusions 556
References 557
Chapter 12: Future Strategies for the Treatment of Depression 562
12.1 What We Have Learned from the Past 562
12.2 What We Are Learning with the Present and Dream for the Future 565
12.2.1 Find Better Drug Delivery Systems and Find New Antidepressants 565
12.2.2 Find the Right Animal Models 566
12.2.3 Increase the Knowledge on Human Genome 567
12.2.4 Personalized Medicine 568
12.3 Conclusions 569
References 569
Index 577