Environmental Medicine (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Environmental Medicine 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
List of Illustrations 9
Preface to the Second Edition 12
Chapter 1. The Environment, Its Influences and Hazards to Health 14
LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 14
HAZARDS AND INFLUENCES OF THE ENVIRONMENT 15
MAN'S INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 20
Further Reading 20
Chapter 2. Some Trace Element Concentrations in Various Environments 22
INTRODUCTION 22
GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUNDS 22
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE POPULATION EXPLOSION 23
CHANGING PATTERNS OF FOOD SUPPLY 23
REPORTED 'NORMAL' CONCENTRATIONS OF SELECTED TRACE ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH'S CRUST AND IN SOILS 24
TRACE ELEMENT CONTENTS OF SOME URBAN SOILS 24
TRACE ELEMENT CONTENTS OF SOME URBAN DUSTS 25
INDUSTRIAL CONTAMINATION 26
UNEXPLAINED ANOMALOUS SOILS 27
TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN MINING AREAS 27
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRACE ELEMENTS IN WET, DRY AND ASHED MATERIALS 28
'NORMAL' TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT OF SOME VEGETABLES 28
ABNORMAL OR ANOMALOUS 
29 
FERTILISERS AS SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION 30
VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TRACE ELEMENTS IN SOILS AND VEGETABLES 30
TRACE ELEMENTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE 31
TRACE ELEMENTS IN WATER 34
TRACE ELEMENTS IN HUMAN DIETS 34
BIOLOGICAL CONCENTRATION OF TRACE ELEMENTS 36
POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TRACE ELEMENT IMBALANCES AND SOME DISEASES 36
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 37
Acknowledgments 37
Bibliography 37
Chapter 3. Radiation and Health Hazards 39
INTRODUCTION 39
NATURE OF RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY 39
SOMATIC EFFECTS OF RADIATION 40
GENETIC EFFECTS OF RADIATION 45
SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE 48
CONTROL OF EXPOSURE 53
STUDIES OF THE CANCER MORTALITY IN EXPOSED PERSONS 53
Acknowledgements 56
References 56
Chapter 4. Water in Relation to Human Disease 59
DEPRIVATION OF WATER 63
DEPLETION OF ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS 65
CHEMICAL WATER POLLUTION 67
BACTERIAL POLLUTION 71
VIRAL POLLUTION 74
SPIROCHAETAL POLLUTION 74
PROTOZOAL POLLUTION 74
WATER-BORNE WORM INFESTATION 76
THE SEA 77
CONCLUSION 80
References 81
Chapter 5. The Relationship of Weather and Climate to Health and Disease 83
INTRODUCTION 83
BASIC METEOROLOGICAL CONCEPTS 83
PRINCIPAL CENTRES OF THE HUMAN BODY REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL STIMULI, AND THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INVOLVED 86
THE EFFECT OF METEOROLOGICAL STIMULI ON NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN HEALTHY SUBJECTS 86
THE EFFECT OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE ON MISCELLANEOUS BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA IN MAN 95
THE EFFECT OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE ON HUMAN DISEASES 97
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS OF HUMAN BIOMETEOROLOGY 112
ARCHITECTURAL AND URBAN APPLICATIONS OF BIOMETEOROLOGY 113
References 116
Chapter 6. Air Pollution in Relation to Human Disease 117
THE ACUTE URBAN AIR POLLUTION INCIDENT 117
THE EFFECTS OF PROLONGED EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION 120
THE EFFECTS OF MOTOR EXHAUST FUMES 121
CARBON MONOXIDE 121
NITROGEN OXIDES 123
HYDROCARBONS 124
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS AND AIR POLLUTION 124
LEAD 124
OTHER POLLUTANTS 127
CONCLUSIONS 128
References 128
Chapter 7. The Ecological Approach to Pesticides and its Relevance to Human Disease 131
INTRODUCTION 131
PESTICIDES 131
WIDESPREAD OCCURRENCE OF PERSISTENT COMPOUNDS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN ECOSYSTEMS 133
ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 137
References 138
Chapter 8. Patterns of Infectious Diseases in Developed Countries in Relation to Environmental Factors 140
INTRODUCTION 140
LIVING CONDITIONS 141
PROTECTIVE PROGRAMMES AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS 146
SOCIAL DISEASES 149
MENTAL HEALTH 150
HOSPITAL INFECTIONS 151
AIR POLLUTION 152
TRANSPORT 152
INDUSTRIAL INJURIES 153
CONCLUSION 153
References 154
Chapter 9. Diseases of Affluence 156
CHANGING PREVALENCE WITH CHANGING CUSTOMS 156
CHANGING PREVALENCES ON EMIGRATION 157
INESCAPABLE CONCLUSIONS 157
SELECTING THE MOST LIKELY SUSPECTS 157
PROPERTIES OF FIBRE 158
HOW MIGHT DIETARY FIBRE PROTECT FROM DISEASE? 159
MEASURES RECOMMENDED TO REDUCE DISEASE INCIDENCE 159
References 160
Chapter 10. Environmental and Other Risk Indicators in the Aetiology of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Disease 161
CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CHD) 170
CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE 177
HYPERTENSIVE HEART DISEASE 177
Conclusion 179
Acknowledgement 179
Chapter Notes 180
References 180
Chapter 11. Environmental Influences in Cancer Aetiology 183
HOST-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS 184
CURRENT VIEWS OF AETIOLOGY 187
EVIDENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ROLE 189
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 190
PREVENTION 198
Acknowledgements 200
References 200
Chapter 12. The Environment and Thyroid Disorders 203
The Geological Basis of Iodine Deficiency 203
Iodine Requirements 204
Measurement of Iodine Balance 204
Simple Goitre—Endemic and Sporadic 204
Evidence for Endemic Goitre being Associated with Iodine Deficiency 205
Evidence Against Iodine Deficiency being the Cause of Endemic Goitre 208
Sporadic Goitre 208
Causes of Simple Goitre other than Iodine Deficiency 208
Testing Trait Hypothesis 211
Goitre Associated with too much Iodide 211
Role of Minerals in Goitre Formation 211
Role of Infection in Goitre Formation 211
Summary of the Effect of the Environment on the Induction of Simple Goitre 212
Endemic Cretinism, Deaf-Mutism and Feeble-Mindedness 212
Hypothyroidism 213
Thyrotoxicosis 213
Pre-existing Goitre and Iodide Intake in Relation to Onset of Thyrotoxicosis 213
Stress 214
Infection as a Cause of Thyrotoxicosis 214
Thyroid Cancer 214
The Effect of other Physical Stimuli on the Thyroid 216
References 217
Chapter 13. Environmental Factors in Relation to Obstetrics 219
THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIALISATION ON CHILDBEARING 219
STANDARDS OF OBSTETRIC CARE 224
PERINATAL DEATH RATES FROM MALFORMATIONS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 226
LOW BIRTH WEIGHT 228
PERINATAL MORTALITY IN BRITAIN SINCE 1958 229
SOCIAL AND OBSTETRICAL FACTORS IN MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 231
CANCER OF THE CERVIX 232
Conclusions 235
References 237
Chapter 14. Environmental Factors in Gynaecological Conditions 238
CARCINOMA OF THE OVARY 242
CARCINOMA OF THE CERVIX UTERI 242
AGE AT MENARCHE 244
THE MENOPAUSE 246
CONCLUSIONS 247
References 247
Chapter 15. Venereal Diseases in Contemporary Societies 249
DEFINITION 249
EXTENT OF THE PROBLEM 250
POPULATION AT RISK 256
REASONS FOR RESURGENCE IN VENEREAL DISEASES 258
References 270
Chapter 16. Alcoholism as a Reflection of Environment 271
INTRODUCTION 271
CONCEPT OF ALCOHOLISM 271
DRINKING PATTERNS 273
AVAILABILITY 275
OCCUPATION 276
DEVELOPMENT OF DRINKING HABITS 277
STRESS 279
SKID ROW 280
CONCLUSION 281
References 281
Chapter 17. Drug Dependence in Contemporary Societies 283
NORMAL DRUG USE 284
DRUGS LIABLE TO ABUSE 285
CONCLUSION 292
References 292
Chapter 18. Mental Health and the Environment 294
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AND MENTAL ILLNESS 297
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS AND MENTAL ILLNESS 298
THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND MENTAL ILLNESS 301
SOME CONCLUSIONS 310
Bibliography 310
Chapter 19. Old Age 319
DEMOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS 319
FACTORS LEADING TO AGEING OF POPULATIONS 322
REASONS FOR CHANGES IN LIFE EXPECTATION 324
AGEING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 324
GENETIC INFLUENCES UPON LIFESPAN 325
SEX AND LONGEVITY 326
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS UPON LIFESPAN 326
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. THEIR INFLUENCE UPON HEALTH IN OLD AGE 327
SPECIAL FACTORS RELATING TO OLD AGE 331
References 333
Chapter 20. The Geography of Genes 335
WORLD DISTRIBUTION 336
REGIONAL AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION 344
GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS IN GENE FLOW 347
DISCUSSION 350
References 351
Chapter 21. Jet-borne Pestilences: Today and Tomorrow 352
THE JET AGE 354
NEW INTERNATIONAL HEALTH REGULATIONS 360
EXOTIC DISEASES OF GLOBAL IMPORTANCE 361
COMMON DISEASES OF TRAVELLERS 366
References 369
Chapter 22. The Documentation of Environmental Medicine: Conventional & Computerized Information Retrieval Methods
GENERAL SCIENCE 370
MEDICAL SCIENCES 373
ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE 374
GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES 375
THESES AND ON-GOING RESEARCH 376
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 377
RECORDS AND RECORD KEEPING 377
SUMMARY 378
References 378
Further Reading 378
Index 380