Front Cover 1
Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications, Part B 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Contributors 10
Preface 12
Chapter One: Marine-Derived Polysaccharides for Regulation of Allergic Responses 14
1. Introduction 15
2. Marine Polysaccharides 16
2.1. Alginate 16
2.2. Porphyran 17
2.3. Fucoidans 17
2.4. Chitin and its derivatives 18
3. Pharmacological Properties of Marine Polysaccharides for Modulation of Allergic Responses 19
3.1. Alginic acid 19
3.2. Porphyran 20
3.3. Fucoidans 20
3.4. Chitin 21
3.5. Chitosan nanoparticles 22
3.6. Chitooligosaccharides 23
4. Conclusion 23
References 24
Chapter Two: Antioxidant Effects of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives 28
1. Introduction 28
2. Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress 30
3. Antioxidant Activity of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives 30
3.1. Antioxidant activity of chitin and chitosan 30
3.2. Antioxidant activity of chito-oligomers and its derivatives 35
4. Conclusion 39
Acknowledgments 40
References 40
Chapter Three: Antidiabetic Activities of Chitosan and Its Derivatives: A Mini Review 46
1. Introduction 46
2. Derivatization 48
3. Antidiabetics and Antiobesity Applications 49
3.1. Indirect activity 49
3.2. Direct activity 51
4. Conclusion 54
References 54
Chapter Four: Role of Alginate in Bone Tissue Engineering 58
1. Introduction 59
2. Alginate General Properties 59
2.1. Structure 59
2.2. Molecular weight and solubility 60
2.3. Biocompatibility 61
3. Tissue Engineering 61
3.1. Bone TE 61
4. Alginate in Bone TE 62
4.1. Alginate scaffolds in bone TE 62
4.2. Alginate hydrogels in bone TE 65
5. Future Prospects 66
6. Conclusion 67
Acknowledgments 67
References 67
Chapter Five: Chitin and Chitosan Composites for Bone Tissue Regeneration 72
1. Introduction 73
2. Naturally Occurring Biopolymers 73
2.1. Chitin 73
2.2. Chitosan 74
3. Tissue Engineering Applications of Chitin and Chitosan 74
4. Applications of Chitin and Chitosan for Bone Tissue Engineering 77
5. Future Prospects 89
6. Conclusions 89
Acknowledgments 89
References 89
Chapter Six: Chemical Modification of Chitosan for Efficient Gene Therapy 96
1. Introduction 97
2. Ligand Modification for Specific Cell Targeting 98
2.1. Galactose ligand modification 98
2.2. Folate ligand modification 99
2.3. Mannose ligand modification 101
2.4. Hyaluronic acid ligand modification 103
3. Stimuli-Response Modification for Enhancement of Transfection Efficiency 103
3.1. pH-sensitive modification 103
3.1.1. Imidazole modification 104
3.1.2. PEI modification 105
3.2. Thiolated modification 105
3.3. Amino acid modification 107
3.4. Magnetic modification 107
4. Penetrating Modification 108
4.1. Brain-blood barrier penetrating modification 108
4.2. Cell penetration peptide modification 109
4.3. Penetration of nuclear membrane 109
5. Conclusion 110
References 110
Chapter Seven: Marine Carbohydrates of Wastewater Treatment 116
1. Introduction 117
1.1. Sources of wastewater 118
1.2. Composition of wastewater 118
1.3. Wastewater treatment 120
2. Materials Used for Wastewater Treatment 123
2.1. Chitin 124
2.2. Chitosan 125
2.3. Alginate 127
2.4. Agar 129
2.5. Carrageenan 130
3. Application of Marine Polysaccharides in Wastewater Treatment 131
3.1. Chitin 131
3.2. Chitosan 133
3.3. Alginate 136
3.4. Carrageenan and agar 139
4. Advantages and Possible Drawbacks of Using Marine Polysaccharide-Based Materials for Adsorption 140
4.1. Advantages 140
4.2. Limitations 141
5. Future Prospects 141
6. Conclusions 142
Acknowledgments 142
References 142
Chapter Eight: Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 158
1. Introduction 159
1.1. Marine carbohydrates 159
1.2. General structures and terminology 160
1.3. Production of carbohydrates by marine organisms 161
1.4. Analysis of marine carbohydrates 162
1.4.1. Agar 162
1.4.2. Alginates 163
1.4.3. Carrageenan 164
1.4.4. Chitin and chitosan 166
1.5. Carbohydrates in sediments 169
2. Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 169
2.1. In cosmetics 170
2.2. In food and agricultural field 170
2.3. In pharmaceutics 173
2.4. In biotechnology and microbiology 179
2.5. In treatment of industrial effluent 180
3. Future Directions for Research 183
4. Conclusion 184
Acknowledgments 184
References 184
Chapter Nine: Nutraceutical and Pharmacological Implications of Marine Carbohydrates 196
1. Introduction 196
2. Marine Carbohydrate Sources 197
3. Marine Carbohydrates as Nutraceuticals 201
4. Marine Carbohydrates as Pharmaceuticals 202
5. Conclusion 204
References 204
Further Reading 208
Chapter Ten: Pharmaceutical, Cosmeceutical, and Traditional Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 210
1. Introduction 211
1.1. Resource of marine carbohydrate 211
1.2. Marine carbohydrate market value 212
1.3. Special areas of conservation 214
2. Pharmaceutical Products and Biological Application 215
2.1. Blood coagulation system 216
2.2. Anticancer activity 217
2.3. Antioxidant activity 218
2.4. Antiviral activity 220
2.5. Antilipidemic activity 221
2.6. Immunomodulating effect 221
3. Cosmeceutical Products and Functional Applications 222
3.1. Fucoidan 222
3.2. Carrageenan 225
3.3. Alginates 226
4. Marine Food and Traditional Application 226
4.1. Marine food carbohydrates and fibers derived as an antioxidants and their antioxidative activity 226
4.1.1. Chitooligosaccharide derivatives 227
4.1.2. Sulfated polysaccharides 227
4.1.3. Carotenoids 227
4.2. Thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers 228
5. Conclusion 228
Acknowledgment 229
References 229
Chapter Eleven: Algal and Microbial Exopolysaccharides: New Insights as Biosurfactants and Bioemulsifiers 234
1. Introduction 235
2. Defining Biosurfactants 237
2.1. Definition and characteristics 237
3. Microalgae: The New and Novel Bioemulsifiers 239
4. Biosynthesis Exemplified in Diatoms and Cyanobacteria 239
5. Cyanobacteria: A Prolific Source of EPS. The Case of Emulcyan 242
6. Diatoms: Photosynthetic Production of Complex EPSs 243
7. EPS: The Genesis in Building Biofilms 246
8. Seaweed Polysaccharides 247
9. Biosurfactants/Bioemulsifiers in Foods. The Marine Alternative 250
9.1. Probiotics EPSs 251
10. Biosurfactants for Sustainable Bioremediation 252
11. The Biosurfactants from Extreme Environments and Deep Sea 255
11.1. EPS from the deep sea 257
11.2. Polysaccharides from marine animals 259
11.3. Marine sources of EPS: The highest source for foods and dietary fibers 260
12. Expectatives and Concluding Remarks 261
References 263
Further Reading 270
Chapter Twelve: Complex Carbohydrates as a Possible Source of High Energy to Formulate Functional Feeds 272
1. Introduction 273
2. Carbohydrates 274
3. Complex Carbohydrates 274
4. Oligosaccharides and NSP 276
5. Polysaccharides 279
5.1. Terrestrial polysaccharides 280
5.2. Marine polysaccharides 281
6. Enzymes and Digestibility 283
7. Prebiotic Ingredients 287
8. Probiotic Bacteria 289
9. Functional Feeds 290
9.1. Definition 291
9.2. Study cases, functional benefits, and usage suggestions 292
9.2.1. Research in pigs 292
9.2.2. Research in poultry 293
9.2.3. Research in fish 294
9.2.4. Research in shrimps 295
References 296
Further Reading 301
Index 302