Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Effects

1. Is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome a New Discovery?.- The Biblical and Postbiblical Eras.- Greece and Rome.- The Middle Ages.- Early Epidemiological Studies.- Elderton—Pearson Controversy.- Early “Animal Model” Studies.- References.- 2. Pharmacology of Alcohol Relating to Pregnancy and Lactation.- Absorption and Route of Administration.- Distribution.- Distribution to the Fetus.- Distribution to the Neonate.- Metabolism.- Elimination.- Toxic Blood Alcohol Levels.- Withdrawal.- References.- 3. Consumption Patterns for Alcohol during Pregnancy.- Total per capita Consumption.- Consumption during Pregnancy.- The “Perinatal-Protective” Mechanism.- At-Risk Levels of Consumption.- References.- 4. Acute Effects of Alcohol on the Fetus.- References.- 5. Adverse Consequences of Drinking during Pregnancy.- Spontaneous Abortion.- Alcohol versus the Alcoholic.- Stillbirths.- Neonatal Mortality.- References.- 6. Incidence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Effects.- Estimated Incidence.- References.- 7. Intrauterine Growth Retardation.- Clinical and Epidemiological Studies.- Preterm Delivery.- Hormonal Factors in Growth.- Amino Acids, DNA, Protein.- Protein Synthesis and Accretion.- Trace Elements.- Postnatal Growth Retardation.- Summary.- References.- 8. Head and Facial Abnormalities.- References.- 9. Disorders of Bodily Organs.- Cardiac Disorders.- Kidney and Urogenital Tract Anomalies.- Liver Anomalies.- Genital Anomalies.- Limb and Joint Anomalies and Other Skeletal Disorders.- Neural-Tube Defects.- Carcinogenesis.- References.- 10. Disorders of the Central Nervous System.- Behavioral Deficits.- Structural and Biochemical Changes in the Brain.- References.- 11. Risk Factors for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Fetal Alcohol Effects.- Maternal Age.- Nutritional Status.-Parity.- Length of Gestation.- Birth Interval.- Sex Differences.- Marital Status.- Paternal Factors.- Placenta Size and Function.- Maternal Infections and Complications of Pregnancy.- Hormonal Imbalances and Endocrinopathy.- Genetic Factors.- Multiple Drug Use.- Poverty and Physical Stress.- Obstetric Factors.- Obstetric Medication.- References.- 12. “Animal Models” for Fetal Alcohol Effects.- Studies in Animals.- Methodological Issues.- References.- 13. Mechanisms of Action.- Alcohol-Induced Hypoxia.- References.- 14. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Case of Prenatal Child Abuse?.- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in the Canadian Courts.- “Diminished Life”.- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Negligence.- References.- 15. Prevention of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.- The Labeling Issue.- National Education Efforts.- Other National Efforts.- Public Information at the State Level.- Evaluation of Information/Education Campaigns.- Summary and Conclusions.- Identification and Treatment of Alcohol-Related Problems in Prenatal Clinics.- References.