Medicine and Surgery of Tortoises and Turtles (eBook)

Stuart McArthur, Roger Wilkinson and Jean Meyer

Medicine and Surgery of Tortoises and Turtles 1
CONTENTS 7
Dedications 18
Foreword 19
List of Contributors 20
1 INTRODUCTION 21
Disclaimer 21
Dealing with chelonians 21
Information regarding general care of captive chelonians 21
Chelonian consultations 23
Taxonomy 23
2 INFECTIOUS AGENTS 51
Potential zoonotic agents 51
Salmonella 51
Other zoonotic agents 52
Chelonian infectious agents 52
Bacterial and mycotic agents commonly resulting in opportunist infections in chelonians 52
3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 55
Shell and skeleton 55
Skin 56
Body cavities 57
Respiratory system 58
Upper respiratory tract 58
Lower respiratory tract 58
Respiratory function 59
Respiratory flora 60
Circulatory system 60
Alterations in pulmonary and central circulation (the dive reflex) 60
Renal portal system 60
Senses 64
Sight 64
Olfaction 65
Hearing 66
Gastrointestinal system 66
Upper digestive tract 66
Lower digestive tract 66
Cloaca 68
Liver 69
Pancreas Jean Meyer 70
Digestive physiology Jean Meyer 70
Gut motility and ingesta passage time 71
Ingestion of non-food material 71
Normal chelonian gutflora 71
Urinary system 72
Urinary anatomy 72
Urinary physiology 73
Chelonian excretion patterns 75
The role of the bladder and lower digestive tract in electrolyte and fluid balance 75
Reproductive system 77
Reproductive anatomy 77
Identifying gender 77
Intersexuality 79
Mating and hybridisation 79
Reproductive endocrinology 79
Folliculogenesis and vitellogenesis 79
Ovulation 80
Fertilisation and egg development 80
Oviposition 80
Clutch size 81
Egg management 81
Environmental sex determination (ESD) 82
Normal development and anatomy 83
Egg chamber structure, temperature and oxygen gradient 83
Infertility and embryonic death 83
Temperature 83
Humidity and substrate saturation 85
Gas exchange 85
Maternal nutrition 86
Substrate effects 86
Egg position, rotation and vibration 86
Infection 86
Genetic factors and inbreeding 86
Iatrogenic death 87
Miscellaneous potential causes of embryonic death 87
Diagnostic approach to embryonic death 87
Prevention of late embryonic death 87
Male infertility 88
Endocrine system 88
Pancreatic hormones Jean Meyer 88
Reproductive endocrinology Stuart McArthur 89
Calcium metabolism Stuart McArthur 89
Thyroid Jean Meyer 91
4 NUTRITION 93
Selection of an appropriate diet 93
Feeding herbivorous chelonians 94
General advice for feeding herbivorous tortoises 97
Suitable dietary components 98
Food analysis 98
Feeding omnivorous tortoises and semi-aquatic chelonians 99
Omnivorous tortoises 99
Semi-aquatic chelonians 100
Diets suitable for omnivorous chelonians 100
Vitamin, mineral and trace-element supplementation 8
Juveniles 101
Adults 101
Reproductively-active females 101
Protein 101
Sources of protein 101
Quantity of protein 101
Nutritional disease in captive chelonians 102
Common nutritional diseases and their signs 102
5 GENERAL CARE OF CHELONIANS 107
Housing 107
Housing terrestrial chelonians 107
Outdoor and indoor enclosures 107
Substrate 109
Housing semi-aquatic turtles 109
Water 109
Haul-out area 109
Stocking levels 109
Temperature, lighting and humidity 110
Temperature 110
Terminology 110
Thermoperiodicity 114
Measuring enclosure temperature 114
Measuring temperatures within hibernacula 115
Choice of heat source 115
Heat provision 116
Basking species 118
Non-basking terrestrial species 119
Semi-aquatic and aquatic species 119
Hibernation temperatures 119
Lighting 119
Photoperiod 120
Humidity 8
Hibernation, neonates and marine turtles 122
Hibernation 8
Safe hibernation management 124
Post-hibernation management 124
Care of neonates 124
Marine turtles 126
6 DIAGNOSIS 129
Clinical Examination 129
History/anamnesis 129
Examination 130
Examination room 130
Examination precautions 131
Restraint 131
Species, age and gender determination 132
Observation 133
Weighing and measuring 133
Cloacal temperature 135
Auscultation and percussion 8
Palpation 135
Examining the head and mouth 136
Access to the limbs 137
Pulse oximetry 137
Physical examination of individuals 137
Shell 137
Limbs 138
Skin 139
Head and associated structures 139
Cloaca 141
Other 141
Examination of groups 141
Examination of animals in the wild 141
Marine turtles 142
Visual inspection 142
Common conditions 142
Criteria for release, treatment or euthanasia 143
Diagnostic investigations 143
Infectious diseases 143
Diagnostic Techniques 143
Post-mortem examination 143
Equipment and protocol 144
Practical clinical pathology 144
Blood testing 144
Bacteriology 149
Cytology 150
Faecal samples 150
Urine samples 151
Urates (gout) 151
Electron microscopy (EM) 151
Virus isolation 151
Molecular tests (PCR) 151
Immunohistochemistry 152
Marine turtles 152
Venepuncture 152
Suggested collection protocol 152
Phlebotomy and venous access sites 152
Jugular veins 152
Dorsal venous sinus (dorsal coccygeal vein) 154
Cardiocentesis 155
Dorsal cervical sinus 156
Subcarapacial (subvertebral) venous sinus 157
Other sites 158
7 CLINICAL PATHOLOGY 161
Laboratory Investigation 161
Blood sampling 161
Sample volume 161
Sampling frequency 161
Factors affecting results 162
Haematology 164
White blood cells 164
‘Normal’ haematological values 169
Interpretation of haematology results 171
Haemoparasites 171
Blood biochemistry 172
Blood biochemistry values 172
Interpretation of results 175
Assessing hydration status 182
History of weight change 182
Clinical signs 183
Haematocrit 9
Blood biochemistry 183
Uric acid and urea 183
Urine specific gravity (SG) 183
Tear gland secretion 183
Blood osmolality and its implications for fluid therapy 184
Coagulation parameters 184
Bone marrow biopsy 184
Cytology 185
Skin and shell 186
Oral cavity 186
Respiratory system 187
Coelomic fluid 187
Soft-tissue masses 187
Joint fluid 187
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 187
Parasitology and faecal examination 188
Ectoparasites 188
Endoparasites 188
Faecal examination 189
Identification of faecal endoparasites 191
Urinalysis 9
Urine solids 191
Cystic calculi 9
Specific gravity (SG) 191
pH 195
Ketones 196
Protein 196
Possible indicators of renal disease 196
Histopathology 197
Toxicology 197
Microorganisms 197
Virology 9
Bacteriology 204
Mycoplasmata 205
Mycology 9
Mycobacteria 206
8 DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING TECHNIQUES 207
Ultrasonography 207
Apparatus 207
Examination technique 208
Cervicobrachial acoustic window 208
Axillary acoustic window 213
Prefemoral acoustic window 213
Eggs 215
Summarised interpretation 215
Radiography 215
Equipment 216
Radiology units 216
Film and intensifying screens 217
Radiographic views 217
Dorsoventral (vertical beam) 217
Lateral (horizontal beam) 218
Craniocaudal (horizontal beam) 218
Head and limbs 218
Musculoskeletal system 218
Nutritional metabolic bone disease 9
Soft-tissue mineralisation 219
Fractures 219
Traumatic joint dislocations 220
Degenerative joint disease 220
Osteomyelitis 222
Gastrointestinal system 222
Contrast studies 223
Alimentary blockage 224
Lead poisoning 224
Urogenital system 227
Genital tract 227
Urinary tract 228
Cardiopulmonary system 228
Heart 228
Lungs 228
Summarised interpretation 228
Endoscopy 232
Equipment 232
Flexible endoscopes 232
Rigid endoscopes 233
Light sources, cameras and recording equipment 233
Equipment and patient preparation 234
Endoscopy techniques 234
Restraint, positioning and entry site preparation 234
Endoscopic approaches to various organs 235
Coelioscopy 235
Gastroscopy 237
Pneumoscopy 245
Organ biopsy 246
Summary 247
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 247
MRI physics 247
Metal objects 248
Resolution and availability 248
Restraint 249
Views 249
Cardiovascular structures 249
Lung fields 250
Liver 251
Intestinal tract 251
Reproductive tract 252
Kidneys 253
Bladder 254
Skeletal system 254
Nervous system 255
Computed Tomography (CT) 255
Scintigraphic Imaging 258
9 HOSPITALISATION 259
Benefits of hospitalisation 259
Diagnosis 259
Stabilisation 259
Patient monitoring 260
Pain control 260
Complex management/therapy 260
Medium- to long-term care 260
Rehabilitation of wild species 260
Problems associated with hospitalisation 260
Size 260
Cost 260
Separation anxiety 260
Inadequate hospitalisation and maladaptation 260
Pre-treatment assessment 261
Accommodation 261
General points 261
Managing the vivarium environment 264
Heat 264
Photoperiod and light 268
Humidity 269
Furnishing 269
Hospitalisation vivaria 269
Terrestrial chelonians 269
Low-humidity-loving basking species 269
High-humidity-loving non-basking species 270
Semi-aquatic chelonians 270
Small species 270
Larger species 271
Marine chelonians 271
Land-based tanks and pools 272
Flotation tanks 273
Hospital care 273
Hospitalisation care plans and in-patient forms 273
Staff 273
Limiting the risk of infection 274
Barrier nursing 274
Disinfection and cleaning 274
Water from semi-aquatic, aquatic and marine facilities 274
Maternity facility 274
Recovery period 274
Discharging the patient 275
10 FEEDING TECHNIQUES AND FLUIDS 277
Feeding techniques 277
Oesophagostomy tube 277
Equipment 283
Placement 283
Tube care 283
Removal 284
Semi-aquatic species 284
Fluid managment 284
Routes of fluid administration 284
Oral fluids 285
Fluids by stomach tube (gavage) 287
Fluids by oesophagostomy tube 288
Epicoelomic fluid injection 288
Intracoelomic fluid injection 288
Intraosseous fluids 288
Intravenous fluids 288
Bathing and cloacal fluids (lower urinary tract absorption) 289
Subcutaneous fluids 289
Over-hydration 289
Fluids for oral rehydration 289
Systemic fluid therapy 289
Dehydration 10
Signs of dehydration/hypovolaemia 290
Biochemical changes (uricotelic species) 291
11 INTERPRETATION OF PRESENTING SIGNS 293
Emaciation 293
Anorexia 293
Inactivity/lethargy 293
Generalised weakness 293
Excessive weight gain 293
Underweight 294
Paresis 294
Ataxia, convulsion, circling 294
Abnormal mucous membrane colour 294
Apparent anaemia 294
Mucous membrane pallor 294
Jaundice 294
Abnormal flotation 294
Post-hibernation anorexia 295
Blepharoedema 295
Blepharospasm 295
Corneal lesions 295
Blindness 295
Ocular discharge 295
Nasal discharge 295
Dyspnoea 296
Excessive extension of neck 296
Stomatitis 296
Pharyngeal oedema 296
Excessive salivation 296
Vomiting/regurgitation 296
Gastroliths 296
Diarrhoea 296
Failure to defecate 296
Subcutaneous swelling 296
Generalised oedema 297
Coelomic swelling 297
Coelomic mass 297
Dystocia 297
Penile prolapse 297
Cloacal organ prolapse 297
Cloacal haemorrhage 297
Joint swelling 298
Lameness 298
Trauma 298
Excessive odour 298
Dermatitis 298
Excessive sloughing of skin 298
Excessive shedding of scutes 298
Excessive skin shedding 298
Shell ulceration 298
Shell fracture 299
Shell distortion 299
Pyramiding of shell 299
Flat shell 299
Soft shell 299
Shell discolouration 299
Overgrowth of beak and nails 299
Plastronal lesions 299
Plastronal discolouration 299
Swelling of lateral head 299
Burns 299
Deflated limbs 299
Sunken eyes 299
Decreased skin elasticity 299
Failure to urinate 299
Uroliths 300
Urine pH 300
Limb trauma 300
Green urine 300
12 PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH TO CONDITIONS OF MARINE TURTLES 321
Hypoglycaemia 321
Aetiology 321
Clinical signs 321
History 321
Diagnosis 321
Treatment 321
Cold stunning 321
Aetiology 321
Clinical signs 321
History 322
Diagnosis 322
Treatment 322
Moribund animals – resuscitation 322
Aetiology 322
Clinical signs 322
History 322
Diagnosis 322
Treatment 322
Entanglement 323
Aetiology 323
Clinical signs 323
History 323
Diagnosis 323
Treatment 323
Gastrointestinal tract obstruction 323
Aetiology 323
Clinical signs 323
Diagnosis 323
Treatment 323
Parasitism 323
Aetiology 323
Clinical signs 323
History 323
Diagnosis 324
Treatment 324
Flotation abnormalities 324
Aetiology 324
Clinical signs 324
Diagnosis 324
Treatment 324
Fibropapillomatosis 324
Aetiology 324
Clinical signs 324
History 324
Diagnosis 324
Treatment 324
Petrol and oil toxicity 325
Aetiology 325
Clinical signs 325
History 325
Diagnosis 325
Treatment 325
Trauma 325
Aetiology 325
Clinical signs 325
Prevention (Inshore management) 325
Diagnosis 325
Treatment 325
Constipation 326
Aetiology 326
Clinical signs 326
History 326
Diagnosis 326
Treatment 326
Nutritional problems 326
Aetiology 326
Treatment 326
Eimeria and Caryospora 326
Clinical significance 326
Diagnosis 327
Treatment 327
13 PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH TO COMMON DISEASES OF TERRESTRIAL AND SEMI-AQUATIC CHELONIANS 329
Anorexia 329
Aetiology 329
Clinical signs 329
History 329
Diagnosis 329
Treatment 330
Beak deformities 330
Aetiology 330
Clinical signs 330
History 330
Diagnosis 330
Treatment 330
Cloacal organ prolapse 330
Aetiology 330
Clinical signs 334
History 334
Diagnosis 334
Treatment 334
Cutaneous and subcutaneous lesions 334
Aetiology 334
Clinical signs 334
History 334
Diagnosis 335
Treatment 335
Cystic calculi 335
Aetiology 335
Clinical signs 335
History 335
Diagnosis 335
Treatment 335
Diarrhoea 335
Aetiology 335
Clinical signs 336
History 336
Diagnosis 336
Treatment 336
Dystocia 336
Aetiology 336
Clinical signs 337
History 337
Diagnosis 337
Treatment 337
Ear infections 339
Aetiology 339
Clinical signs 339
History 340
Diagnosis 342
Treatment 343
Ectoparasites 343
Aetiology 343
Clinical signs 344
History 344
Diagnosis 344
Treatment 344
Endoparasites 344
Aetiology 344
Clinical signs 345
History 345
Diagnosis 345
Treatment 345
Follicular stasis 345
Aetiology 345
Loss of social cues 345
Clinical signs 348
History 348
Diagnosis 348
Treatment 348
Induce ovulation 349
Prevention 349
Frost damage 349
Aetiology 349
Clinical signs 349
History 350
Diagnosis 350
Treatment 350
Gout 350
Aetiology 350
Clinical signs 351
History 351
Diagnosis 351
Treatment 351
Heat damage 352
Aetiology 352
Clinical signs 353
History 353
Diagnosis 353
Treatment 353
Hepatic disease 353
Aetiology 353
Clinical signs 353
History 353
Diagnosis 353
Treatment 353
Hepatic lipidosis 353
Aetiology 353
Clinical signs 354
History 354
Diagnosis 354
Treatment 355
Hypervitaminosis A 355
Aetiology 355
Clinical signs 355
History 355
Diagnosis 356
Treatment 356
Hypothyroidism/hypoiodinism 356
Aetiology 356
Clinical signs 356
History 356
Diagnosis 357
Treatment 357
Hypovitaminosis A 357
Aetiology 357
Clinical signs 357
History 358
Diagnosis 358
Treatment 359
Hypovitaminosis B1 (thiamine) 360
Lower digestive tract disease 360
Intestinal impaction/obstruction 360
Aetiology 360
Clinical signs 362
History 362
Diagnosis 362
Treatment 363
Enteritis and colitis 363
Clinical significance 363
Diagnosis 363
Treatment 363
Fungal enteritis 363
Clinical significance 363
Diagnosis 363
Treatment 364
Amoebiasis 364
Clinical significance 364
Diagnosis 364
Treatment 364
Balantidium and Nyctotherus 365
Clinical significance 365
Diagnosis 366
Treatment 366
Coccidians 366
Clinical significance 366
Diagnosis 366
Cryptosporidiosis 366
Clinical significance 366
Diagnosis 366
Treatment 366
Trichomonas/flagellates 366
Clinical significance 366
Diagnosis 367
Treatment 367
Hexamita 367
Clinical significance 367
Diagnosis 367
Treatment 367
Metazoan parasites 367
Ascarids 367
Clinical significance 367
Diagnosis 368
Treatment 368
Oxyurids (Pinworms) 368
Clinical significance 368
Diagnosis 368
Treatment 368
Proatractis 368
Clinical significance 368
Diagnosis 368
Treatment 369
Other metazoan parasites 369
Flukes 369
Spirurids 369
Acanthocephalans 369
Cestodes 369
Neoplasia of the digestive tract 369
Lower respiratory tract infections 369
Aetiology 369
Clinical signs 369
History 370
Diagnosis 370
Treatment 370
Maladaptation 370
Aetiology 370
Clinical signs 370
History 370
Diagnosis 370
Treatment 370
Metabolic bone disease (MBD) and nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism 370
Aetiology 370
Clinical signs 373
History 374
Diagnosis 374
Treatment 375
Metastatic calcinosis/pseudogout 376
Aetiology 376
Diagnosis 376
Treatment 377
Posterior paresis or weakness 377
Aetiology 377
Clinical signs 377
History 377
Diagnosis 377
Treatment 377
Post-hibernation anorexia (PHA) 377
Aetiology 378
History 379
Clinical evaluation 379
Treatment 379
Euthanasia 380
Renal disease 381
Aetiology 381
Clinical signs 381
History 382
Diagnosis 382
Treatment 384
Septicaemia 386
Aetiology 386
Clinical signs 386
History 386
Diagnosis 386
Treatment 387
Sight problems 387
Aetiology 387
Clinical signs 387
History 387
Diagnosis 387
Treatment 387
Steatitis/deficiency of vitamin E/selenium complex 387
Aetiology 387
Clinical signs 387
Treatment 387
Stomatitis 387
Aetiology 387
Clinical signs 388
History 388
Diagnosis 388
Treatment 389
Upper respiratory tract disease (URTD)/runny-nose syndrome (RNS) 389
Aetiology 389
Clinical signs 390
History 390
Diagnosis 390
Treatment 390
Summary 391
Viral disease 391
Aetiology 391
Clinical signs 391
History 392
Diagnosis 392
Treatment 393
Prevention 394
Weight abnormalities Overweight 396
Aetiology 396
Clinical signs 396
History 396
Diagnosis 396
Treatment 396
Underweight 396
Aetiology 396
Clinical signs 396
History 396
Diagnosis 396
Treatment 396
Yolk coelomitis 396
Aetiology 396
Diagnosis 397
Treatment 397
14 ANAESTHESIA, ANALGESIA AND EUTHANASIA 399
Anaesthesia 399
General considerations 400
Hypothermia 400
Pain and analgesia 401
Anatomy and physiology 401
Staging anaesthesia 403
Patient assessment 403
General health 404
Hydration status and recent fluid management 404
Observation of the unstressed patient 404
Body weight 404
Species differences 404
Patient preparation 405
Temperature 405
Fluid therapy 405
Local anaesthesia 406
Induction 406
Patient monitoring 406
Ventilation 406
Reflexes 406
Equipment 407
Cardiovascular system 407
Blood loss 407
Temperature 407
Blood glucose 407
Other parameters 408
8MHz Doppler 408
Anaesthetic monitoring 408
Diagnostic auscultation 408
Venepuncture sites 408
Intubation 408
Ventilation 408
Injectable anaesthetic agents 409
Atropine 409
Phenothiazines 409
Diazepines 410
Alpha-2 agonists 410
Opiates 410
Barbiturates 411
Dissociative anaesthetics 411
Steroid anaesthetics 412
Propofol 415
Neuromuscular blocking agents 415
Gaseous Agents 416
Isoflurane 416
Sevoflurane 417
Halothane 417
Methoxyflurane 418
Nitrous oxide 418
Patient Recovery 418
Respiratory stimulants 418
Analgesia 418
Euthanasia 418
Methods of euthanasia 419
Lethal injection (combination method) 419
Other methods 420
Diagnosing death 421
15 SURGERY 423
Pre-operative patient preparation 423
Anaesthesia and analgesia 423
Antibiotics 423
Fluid management 423
Temperature and hibernation 425
Preparation of the surgical site 425
Suture materials and skin repair techniques 425
Sutures 425
Glues and patches 425
Wound healing 425
Post-operative care 426
Advanced surgical technology 427
Laser surgery 427
Radiosurgery 428
Additional surgical equipment 430
Specific surgical procedures 430
Cloacal organ prolapse 430
Identification of the prolapsed structure 431
Analgesia 431
Prolapse reduction 431
Episiotomy 432
Purse-string sutures 432
Prolapse amputation 432
Penile amputation 432
Amputation of prolapsed oviductal material 432
Amputation of prolapsed cloaca/rectum 433
Ear abscesses 433
Indications 433
Technique 433
Subcutaneous abscess/fibriscesses 434
Technique 434
Coeliotomy 434
Choice of approach 435
Central plastron osteotomy 436
Indications 436
Preparation 436
Plastron osteotomy 436
Entering the coelom 439
Coelomic closure 440
Flap closure 441
Post-operative care 443
Complications following coeliotomy 443
Prefemoral/soft-tissue flank approach 445
Indications 445
Coelomic procedures possible through a prefemoral approach 445
Technique 447
Lateral plastronotomy combined with prefemoral approach 447
Ovariectomy 449
Indications 449
Technique 449
Egg retention 450
Salpingotomy 450
Cloacal ovocentesis 453
Cystotomy 453
Removal of ectopic eggs 453
Prefemoral approach 455
Enterotomy 455
Gastrointestinal foreign-body removal 458
Trauma 459
Shell trauma 461
Stabilising and managing acute shell trauma in terrestrial chelonians 463
Osteomyelitis and neoplasia 465
Orthopaedicfixation 465
Plastron trauma (burns and infections) 466
Limb trauma 468
Bandages (external coaption) 468
External fixation 469
Internal fixation 469
Ligament repair 470
Amputation 472
Rat-bite trauma 472
Jaw and beak trauma 472
Mandibular fractures 473
Marine chelonian trauma 474
Osteomyelitis 474
Respiratory tract 474
Biopsy of the upper respiratory tract 474
Biopsy of the lower respiratory tract 474
Lung wash 475
Lung abscesses 476
Eye enucleation 476
Microchip insertion (terrestrial and semi-aquatic species) 477
Insertion sites 477
Other surgical procedures 480
16 THERAPEUTICS 485
Introduction 485
Temperature and thermotherapy 485
Calculating drug dosages and intervals 485
Routes of drug administration 485
Oral 485
Per-cloaca/colon 487
Antibiotic-impregnated polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) beads 487
Intrapneumonic 487
Intravenous, intraosseous, intracoelomic injection 487
Intramuscular injection 487
Subcutaneous injection 487
Renal portal system 487
Antibacterials 488
Beta-lactam antibiotics 488
Aminoglycosides 489
Chloramphenicol 489
Tetracyclines 489
Fluoroquinolones 489
Macrolides 489
Lincosamides 489
Potentiated sulphonamides 492
Metronidazole 492
Dimetridazole 493
Drug combinations 493
Topical antibacterials 493
Choice of antibacterial 495
Antifungals 495
Superficial mycoses 495
Systemic/subcutaneous mycoses 495
Topical antifungals 495
Antivirals 497
Parasiticides 497
Macrocyclic lactones 497
Sulpha drugs 497
Benzimidazoles 497
Piperazine 498
Levamisole 498
Praziquantel 498
Parasitic diseases 498
Summary 499
Fluid therapy 499
Determination of hydration status 499
Whole blood and haemoglobin 500
Fluids for oral (or colonic) rehydration 500
Fluids for parenteral administration 501
Are marine turtles a special case? 502
How much fluid should be given, how quickly and over what period? 502
Gastrointestinal motility modifiers 503
Diuretics 503
Hormones 503
Thyroid 503
Glucocorticoids 503
Oxytocin 503
Calcitonin 503
Analgesics 503
Urate metabolism and excretion 504
Vitamins 504
Vitamin A 504
Vitamin D 504
Minerals 504
Iodine 504
Sodium chloride 504
Nebulisation 504
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO) 505
Vaccination 505
17 FORMULARY 507
Acyclovir 507
Allopurinol 507
Amikacin 508
Ampicillin 508
Butorphanol 508
Calcitonin (Salcatonin® 508
Calcium gluconate/borogluconate 509
Carbenicillin 509
Carprofen 509
Cefoperazone 510
Ceftazidime 510
Chloramphenicol 510
Chloroquine 511
Cisapride 511
Clarithromycin 511
Clindamycin 512
Dimetridazole 512
Dioctyl sulphosuccinate (docusate sodium) 512
Doxycycline 512
EDTA (sodium calcium edetate) 512
Enrofloxacin 513
Fenbendazole 513
Fluconazole 513
Flunixin meglumine 514
Frusemide (United Kingdom), Furosemide (United States) 514
Gentamicin 514
Iodoquinol (diiodohydroxyquin) 515
Itraconazole 515
Ketoconazole 515
Levamisole 515
Levothyroxine 516
Lysine 516
Mebendazole 516
Medroxyprogesterone acetate 516
Metoclopramide 516
Metronidazole 517
Milbemycin 517
Natamycin 517
Neomycin 518
Nystatin 518
Oxfendazole 518
Oxytetracycline 518
Oxytocin 519
Paromomycin 519
Potassium (chloride/bicarbonate) 519
Praziquantel 520
Probenecid 520
Proligestone 520
Sulphadimethoxine 521
Trimethoprim/sulphadiazine 521
Tylosin 521
Vitamin A 521
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) 522
Vitamin D 522
18 APPENDICES 525
APPENDIX A: TURTLE CONSERVATION 525
Threats to turtle populations 525
Turtle conservation projects 526
Egg relocation 527
Turtle treatment and rehabilitation facilities 529
Turtle nesting 529
APPENDIX B: PLANTS SUGGESTED TO BE POISONOUS TO CHELONIANS 16
APPENDIX C: CARE SHEETS 17
Red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) care sheet 533
Diet 533
Husbandry requirements 533
Salmonella 533
Hibernation 533
Testudo species care sheet 534
Accommodation 534
APPENDIX D: REHABILITATION OF ASIAN CHELONIANS 537
Quarantine 537
Environment 537
Hydration and nutritional support 538
Medical management 538
Diagnostic investigation 538
Bacterial infection 539
Parasitism 539
Conclusion 539
APPENDIX E: A SELECTIVE CHELONIAN TAXONOMY 539
APPENDIX F: VIRAL DISEASE 539
References 559
Index 580

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